Sustainable Solutions for Environmental Pollution, Volume 1: Waste Management and Value-Added Products

512 Pages·2021·34.621 MB·English

by  Nour Shafik El-Gendy

Sustainable Solutions
for Environmental Pollution
Scrivener Publishing
100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J
Beverly, MA 01915-6106
Publishers at Scrivener
Martin Scrivener ([email protected])
Phillip Carmical ([email protected])
Sustainable Solutions
for Environmental Pollution
Volume 1
Waste Management
and Value-Added Products
Edited by
Nour Shafik El-Gendy
This edition first published 2021 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA
and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
ISBN 9781119785354
Cover image: Stockvault.com
Cover design by Russell Richardson
Set in size of 11pt and Minion Pro by Manila Typesetting Company, Makati, Philippines
Printed in the USA
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Contents
Preface xv
1 An Overview of Electro-Fermentation as a Platform
for Future Biorefineries 1
Tae Hyun Chung and Bipro Ranjan Dhar
1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 Fundamental Mechanisms 5
1.3 Value-Added Products from Electro-Fermentation 7
1.3.1 Carboxylates 11
1.3.1.1 Short-Chain Carboxylates 11
1.3.1.2 Medium-Chain Carboxylates 13
1.3.2 Bioethanol 14
1.3.3 Bio-Butanol 16
1.3.4 Microalgae Derived Lipids 18
1.3.5 Acetoin 21
1.3.6 Biopolymer 23
1.3.7 L-lysine 25
1.3.8 1,3-propanediol 27
1.4 Challenges and Future Outlook 29
1.5 Acknowledgements 30
References 30
2 Biodiesel Sustainability: Challenges and Perspectives 41
Hussein N. Nassar, Abdallah R. Ismail
and Nour Sh. El-Gendy
Abbreviations 42
2.1 Introduction 44
2.2 Biodiesel Production 48
2.3 Factors Affecting Biodiesel Production Process 51
2.3.1 The Type of Feedstock 51
2.3.2 The Type of Alcohol 54
v
vi Contents
2.3.3 Effect of Alcohol to Oil Molar Ratio 55
2.3.4 Catalyst Concentration 55
2.3.5 Catalysts Type 56
2.3.5.1 Lipases 56
2.3.5.2 Acid Catalysts 58
2.3.5.3 Alkaline Catalysts 63
2.3.6 Effect of Reaction Temperature 73
2.3.7 Effect of Reaction Time 74
2.3.8 Mixing Efficiency 75
2.3.9 Effect of pH 76
2.4 Transesterification Mechanisms 76
2.4.1 Homogeneous Acid-Catalyzed Transesterification
Reaction 76
2.4.2 Lipase-Catalyzed Transesterification Reaction 77
2.4.3 CaO-Catalyzed Transesterification Reaction 77
2.4.4 Other Calcium Derived-Catalyzed
Transesterification Reaction 80
2.5 Production of Biodiesel Using Heterogeneous
Catalyst Prepared from Natural Sources 81
2.6 Challenges and Perspectives 94
References 99
3 Multidisciplinary Sides of Environmental Engineering
and Sustainability 123
Said S. E. H. Elnashaie
3.1 Introduction 124
3.2 System Theory and Integrated System Approach 126
3.2.1 System Theory 126
3.2.2 The State of the System and State Variables 128
3.2.3 Input Variables (Parameters) 128
3.2.4 Design Variables (Parameters) 128
3.2.5 Physico-Chemical Variables (Parameters) 128
3.2.6 Boundaries of System 129
3.2.6.1 Isolated System 129
3.2.6.2 Closed System 129
3.2.6.3 Open System 129
3.2.7 Steady, Unsteady States and Thermodynamic
Equilibrium of Systems 130
3.3 Sustainable Development, Sustainable Development
Engineering and Environmental Engineering 130
3.3.1 Bio-Fuels and Integrated Bio-Refineries 132
Contents vii
3.3.2 Integrated System Approach 137
3.4 Advanced Multi-Disciplinary Sustainable Engineering
Education 139
3.4.1 Bio-Fuels 143
3.4.1.1 Bio-Hydrogen 143
3.4.1.2 Bio-Diesel 143
3.4.1.3 Bio-Ethanol 144
3.4.2 Bio-Products 145
3.4.3 Integrated Bio-Refineries 146
3.4.4 Development of Novel Technologies 147
3.4.5 Economics of Bio-Fuels and Bio-Products 147
3.4.6 Nano-Technology (NT) 148
3.4.7 Non-Linear Dynamics (NLDs), Bifurcation (B),
Chaos (C) and Complexity (COMP) 148
3.4.8 Sustainable Development (SD), Sustainable
Development Engineering (SDE), System
Theory (ST) and Integrated System Approach (ISA) 149
3.4.9 Novel Education 149
3.4.10 New Journal 150
3.5 Novel Designs for Auto-Thermal Behavior Towards
Sustainability 152
3.5.1 Integrated System Approach Classification 153
3.6 Conclusions 156
References 156
4 Biofuels 163
Karuna K. Arjoon and James G. Speight
4.1 Introduction 163
4.2 Composition 165
4.3 Classification of Biofuels 166
4.3.1 First-Generation Biofuels 166
4.3.1.1 Sugars and Starch 166
4.3.1.2 Cellulose 168
4.3.1.3 Lignin 168
4.3.2 Second-Generation Biofuels 169
4.3.3 Third-Generation Biofuels 169
4.4 Examples of Biofuels 170
4.4.1 Biodiesel 170
4.4.2 Bio-Alcohols 174
4.4.3 Bioethers 176
4.4.4 Biogas 177
viii Contents
4.4.5 Bio-Oil 179
4.4.6 Synthesis Gas 180
4.5 Property Variations with Source 181
4.6 Properties Compared to Fuels from Crude Oil Tar Sand
Bitumen, Coal and Oil Shale 185
4.7 Fuel Specifications and Performance 189
4.8 Conclusion 195
References 197
5 Sustainable Valorization of Waste Cooking Oil into Biofuels
and Green Chemicals: Recent Trends, Opportunities
and Challenges 199
Omar Aboelazayem and Ranim Alayoubi
5.1 Introduction 200
5.2 Waste Cooking Oil (WCO) 201
5.3 Biofuels from WCO 203
5.3.1 Biodiesel 203
5.3.2 Biojet Fuel 206
5.3.2.1 Hydro-Treatment Process 208
5.3.2.2 Cracking and Isomerisation Processes 209
5.4 Green Chemicals from WCO 210
5.4.1 Asphalt Rejuvenator 211
5.4.2 Plasticizers 212
5.4.3 Polyurethane Foam 214
5.4.4 Bio-Lubricants 215
5.4.5 Surfactants 215
5.5 Challenges and Future Work 216
5.6 Conclusion 217
References 218
6 Waste Valorization: Physical, Chemical,
and Biological Routes 229
Muhammad Faheem, Muhammad Azher Hassan,
Tariq Mehmood, Sarfraz Hashim and Muhammad Aqeel Ashraf
6.1 Background 230
6.2 Land Biomass vs. Oceanic Biomass 233
6.3 Waste Management 233
6.4 Waste Valorization for Adsorbents Development 234
6.5 Waste Valorization for Catalysts Preparations 237
6.6 Bio-Based Waste Valorization for Bio-Fuel
and Bio-Fertilizer Production 240