Sustainable Aquaculture Techniques

269 Pages·2016·23.49 MB·English

by  Hernandez-Vergara Martha Patricia

Sustainable Aquaculture Techniques

Edited by Martha Patricia Hernandez-Vergara

and Carlos Ivan Perez-Rostro
Sustainable Aquaculture Techniques

Edited by Martha Patricia Hernandez-Vergara and Carlos Ivan Perez-Rostro

D3pZ4i & bhgvld, Dennixxx & rosea (for softarchive)

Stole src from http://avaxho.me/blogs/exLib/

Published by AvE4EvA
Copyright © 2014
All chapters are Open Access distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0
license, which allows users to download, copy and build upon published articles even for
commercial purposes, as long as the author and publisher are properly credited, which
ensures maximum dissemination and a wider impact of our publications. After this work
has been published by InTech, authors have the right to republish it, in whole or part, in
any publication of which they are the author, and to make other personal use of the
work. Any republication, referencing or personal use of the work must explicitly identify
the original source.

As for readers, this license allows users to download, copy and build upon published
chapters even for commercial purposes, as long as the author and publisher are properly
credited, which ensures maximum dissemination and a wider impact of our publications.

Notice
Statements and opinions expressed in the chapters are these of the individual contributors
and not necessarily those of the editors or publisher. No responsibility is accepted for the
accuracy of information contained in the published chapters. The publisher assumes no
responsibility for any damage or injury to persons or property arising out of the use of any
materials, instructions, methods or ideas contained in the book.

Publishing Process Manager
Technical Editor AvE4EvA MuViMix Records
Cover Designer

Published 19 February, 2014

ISBN-10 9535112244
ISBN-13 9789535112242
C ontents

Preface

1 Impacts of Aquaculture on Habitats and BestManagement Practices (BMPs)
2 Development of Freshwater Native Species with Aquacultural Potential

3 Biofloc, a Technical Alternative for Culturing Malaysian Prawn

Macrobrachium rosenbergii

4 Sustainable Technique for Selected Live Feed Culture
5 Use of Yeasts as Probiotics in Fish Aquaculture

6 The Use and Benefits of Bacillus Based Biological Agents in Aquaculture
7 Application of Biological Agents in Abalone Aquaculture:
A South African Perspective
8 Use of Probiotic Bacteria against Bacterial and Viral Infections
in Shellfish and Fish Aquaculture
Preface

This book presents some innovative developments in sustainable aquaculture
practices in the context of environmental protection and seafood production
techniques.
The chapters are written by experts in their respective areas, so that their
contribution represents the progress of their research, which is intended to
mark the current frontier in aquaculture practices.
Every chapter presents techniques that contribute to good aquaculture practices,
where direct and vital nutrition and food, as a source of energy and biomass
generation, is fundamentally based.

We hope this book supports producers and researchers in their activities and
helps to maintain a spirit of environmental protection in the context of production
of high quality, nutritional food.

Chapter 1
Impacts of Aquaculture on Habitats and Best
Management Practices (BMPs)
Gulnihal Ozbay, Grant Blank and Taworn Thunjai
Additional information is available at the end of the chapter
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/57471
1. Introduction
The demand for food must be met as the human population reaches an estimated nine billion
people by the year 2050. This means we must increase overall food production by 70% and
this increase must be sustainable and food price affordable (United Nations FAO 2009). Most
of the population growth is expected to continue in underdeveloped countries with limited
technologies and venues (United Nations FAO 2009). As a popular high protein food source,
seafood contains omega-3 fatty acids that are required for healthy human development (UMD
Medical Center 2013). Seafood is low in calories, total fat, and saturated fat, while high in
vitamins and minerals including vitamins A and D, phosphorus, magnesium, selenium, and
iodine (FAO FOCUS 2013). Fish have been shown to have numerous health benefits (Table
1). Seafood is a healthy, low-fat alternative to beef, poultry, and pork and significant omega-3
fatty acids much higher than vegetable-based diets (FAO FOCUS 2013). Specifically, omega-3
fatty acids contained within fish oil are critically important for infants and babies to develop
a normal brain (FAO FOCUS 2013).
Population growth and economic development trends are the most important drivers for the
demand for high quality and nutritional seafood products (Ewart 2013). With wild capture
fisheries exceeding the maximum sustainable harvest capacity, aquaculture has become a
bridge in closing the gap between rising demand and traditional seafood sources (Figure 1).
Today, farmed seafood accounts for about 50% of overall production in the global marketplace
(Bush et al. 2013). The United States aquaculture industry, valued at over $1.1 billion, produces
a variety of fish and shellfish species for food, recreation, and industrial needs (Ewart 2013).
However the United States is in a seafood deficit, importing more seafood to meet the demands
for seafood consumption than it can produce (NOAA Office of Aquaculture 2013).
2 Sustainable Aquaculture Techniques
Table 1. Nutrition facts on various seafood species (The United States Food and Drug Administration 2008).
Impacts of Aquaculture on Habitats and Best Management Practices (BMPs) 3
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/57471
Commercial aquaculture is a young and rapidly expanding industry in the United States and
the need for information on sustainable growth and development has increased dramatically
during the past few decades (Wilson et al. 2002; FAO FOCUS 2013). Aquaculture in the simplest
terms is the farming of aquatic plants and animals. Furthermore, the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Office of Aquaculture (2013) describes aquaculture on
a broader scale as the breeding, rearing, and harvesting of plants and animals in all types of
water environments, including ponds, rivers, lakes, and the ocean. Similar to agriculture,
aquaculture can take place in the natural environment or in a manmade environment where
controlled cultivation and husbandry of aquatic plants and animals are achieved. Using
aquaculture techniques and technologies, researchers, aquaculturists and the aquaculture
industry are “growing,” “producing,” “culturing,” and “farming” all types of freshwater and
marine species (NOAA Office of Aquaculture 2013). According to Ewart (2013), aquaculture
has a long history dating back a few thousands of years in China and Egypt. Aquaculture
within the United States dates back to the late 1800s, when hatchery technologies were utilized
to cultivate fish for restoration of depleted inland freshwater fishes (Ewart 2013). Ewart
(2013) stated with a short commercial history (about 50 years), the United States aquaculture
industry has a current annual farm gate value of $1.9 billion. Included in the domestic
aquaculture production are variety of fish and shellfish species for food, recreation (stock
enhancement, restoration, ornamental fish, aquatic plants, live bait), and industrial applica‐
tions (food additives).
Aquaculture can benefit more than human economies and diets. Oyster shellfish aquaculture
provides many of the same ecosystem services as natural oyster reefs (Dealteris et al. 2004;
Erbland and Ozbay 2008). Unlike some finfish farming practices, rearing shellfish in high
densities in shallow water with abundant phytoplankton concentrations can have positive
effects on the environment and may promote biodiversity (Shumway et al. 2003; Dealteris et
al. 2004; O’Beirn et al. 2004; Tallman and Forrester 2007; D’Amours et al. 2008; Erbland and
Ozbay 2008; Taylor and Bushek 2008).
As stated by Emerson (1999), the process of aquaculture has been under increasing scrutiny
as the world tries to supply food for a population which is currently over seven billion. This
criticism is happening regardless of how aquaculture is perceived as an economic windfall for
developing countries or potential food industries. Aquaculture is the fastest growing food
production sector in the world but its sustainability is not fully satisfied (FAO 2013). This
chapter will reassure the ultimate question we ask ourselves: is sustainable aquaculture our
solution?
Emerson (1999) discussed how pollution, destruction of sensitive coastal habitats, threats to
aquatic biodiversity and significant socio-economic costs must be balanced against the
substantial benefits and how aquaculture has great potential for food production and the
alleviation of poverty for people living in coastal areas where most of the poorest in the world
live. He also stated a delicate balance between food security and the environmental costs of
production must be achieved. This leads us to our second question: how do we make the
world’s fastest growing food sector environmentally and socially responsible?
4 Sustainable AAqquaucualtcurue lTetcuhnriqeu esImpacts on Habitat & BMPs          Ozbay et al.   | 4 

a b

c
d

F iFgiugurer e1 1. .G al.o Gbalol bhaalr vheasrtv oesf ta oqfu aaqtuica otircg oarngisamniss min sm inil lmionilsli oonf st oonf st obnest wbeetewne 1e9n5 109-5200-1200 1(0F A(FOA 2O0 1210)1;1 b);. bG.l oGblaolb aaql uaqaucualc‐ulture
tpurreo dpurcotidounc tinio mn iilnli omnsi loliof ntosn so fb ettownese nb e1t9w50e-e2n0 1109 (5F0A-O20 21001 1()F;A cO. M 2a0in1 1a)q; uca.c uMltauirne caoquunatcruieltsu bree twcoeuennt 1ri9e5s0 -b2e0t1w0 e(eFnAO 2011);
1a9n5d0 d-2. 0M10a i(nF AaqOu 2a0cu11lt)u; raen cdo du.n Mtraieins ianq 2u0a1c0u l(tFuAreO c o2u01n1tr)i.e s in 2010 (FAO 2011).

As we sAeqauracchul tfuorre caanns bweneerfsit tmoo rteh ethsaen qhuumesatni oencosn,o tmhiees Wanodr dldie tsW. Oilydstleifre s hFeelldfisehr aaqtiuoancu l(tWureW pFro v2i0d1es3 )many of the
same ecosystem services as natural oyster reefs (Dealteris et al. 2004; Erbland and Ozbay 2008). Unlike some finfish farming
gives additional reasons for why aquaculture must become more responsible. According to
practices, rearing shellfish in high densities in shallow water with abundant phytoplankton concentrations can have positive
the WWF (2013), over 53% of the fisheries worldwide are exploited when over 32% are
effects on the environment and may promote biodiversity (Shumway et al. 2003; Dealteris et al. 2004; O’Beirn et al. 2004;
eTiathllmera nd aenpdl Feoterrdes, teorv 2e0r0e7x; Dp’lAomitoeudr so ert arle. 2c0o0v8e; Erirnblgan idn acnlud dOiznbgay a 2r0e08 t; oTpay ltoern a nmd aBruisnheek f 2is00h8e).r ies and as
much asA s3 s0t%ate do fb ya lElm cearpsotnu r(1e9 9f9is),h tehrei epsro cpersos douf acqtiuoancu laturere ehiatsh ebere nfu ulnlyd eer xinpclroeiatseindg oscrr uotivneyr aesx pthleo iwt‐orld tries to
supply food for a population which is currently over seven billion. This criticism is happening regardless of how aquaculture
ed. Over 90% of large fish were overfished including are several important commercial
is perceived as an economic windfall for developing countries or potential food industries. Aquaculture is the fastest growing
fishes (i.e. tuna, skipjack, cod, sturgeon) to the point their survival is threated. Whether it
food production sector in the world but its sustainability is not fully satisfied (FAO 2013). This chapter will reassure the
iusl tfimulaltye q euxesptilooni twede a sokr o uorvseelrveexs:p isl osuitsetadi,n abbyle a2q0u4a8cu flitushre osupre scoileusti ohna?r vested for food will be col‐
lapsed uEmnleerssosn u(1r9g9e9n) dt ismcuasnseadg heomwe pnotll uptiroanc, tdiceestsru actrieon t oafk seenns ittiov ei cmoapsrtaol vheab tithaets , cthurreraetsn tto caoqunadtiict iboiondsiversity and
significant socio-economic costs must be balanced against the substantial benefits and how aquaculture has great potential for
(WWF 2013). Unwanted fish (by-catch), like many other animals, die due to inefficient,
food production and the alleviation of poverty for people living in coastal areas where most of the poorest in the world live.
illegal, and destructive fishing practices every year. This destructive fishing practice along
He also stated a delicate balance between food security and the environmental costs of production must be achieved. This
wleiatdhs ousv etor foiushr isnecgo nlda rqgueelsyti orne:s huolwts dino wpeo omra kfies htheer iweosr lmd’as nfaasgteesmt gernowt, inpgir faotoed fsisechteors ,e nsuvibrosnidmieenst,a allny dand socially
urensfpaoinrs fibisleh?e ries partnerships (WWF 2013).
As we search for answers to these questions, the World Wildlife Federation (WWF 2013) gives additional reasons for
Owvhey ra qthuaec upltausrte 5m0u syt ebaercso mine mthoere Urenspitoenss ibSltea. tAecsc,o trhdien gd teom thaen Wd WfoFr (2s0e1a3f)o, oovde rh 5a3s% ionfc rtheea sfiesdhe raiess twhoerldwide are
peoxpplouiltaedti ownh erne aovcehre 3d2 %o vaerer e3i0th0e rm dielpliloetned p, eovoeprelexp (lNoiOtedA oAr r2e0co1v1e)r.i nSge ainfcoluoddi nigm apreo trotp i st eonv mera r8in6e% fi sohfe trioetsa alnd as much
seafood demand in the United States (NOAA 2010). Unfortunately, many economically and
ecologically important fish species are disappearing from our oceans through over-harvest,