Sustainability and Environmental Impact of Renewable Energy Sources (Issues in Environmental Science and Technology)

158 Pages·2003·2.334 MB·English

by  R.M. Harrison, R.E. Hester

ISSUES IN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
AND TECHNOLOGY
: ..   .. 
19
Sustainability and
Environmental
Impact of Renewable
Energy Sources
ISBN0-85404-290-3
ISSN1350-7583
AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary
©TheRoyalSocietyofChemistry2003
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ISSUES IN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY
:
R.E.Hester,UniversityofYork,UK
R.M.Harrison,UniversityofBirmingham,UK
  :
SirGeoffreyAllen,ExecutiveAdvisortoKobeSteelLtd,UK,A.K.Barbour,Specialistin
EnvironmentalScienceandRegulation,UK,N.A.Burdett,EasternGenerationLtd,UK,J.
Cairns,Jr.,VirginiaPolytechnicInstituteandStateUniversity,USA,P.A.Chave,WaterPollution
Consultant,UK,P.Crutzen,Max-Planck-Institutfu¨rChemie,Germany,S.J.deMora,
InternationalAtomicEnergyAgency,Monaco,P.Doyle,Syngenta,Switzerland,G.Eduljee,SITA,
UK,M.J.Gittins,Consultant,UK,J.E.Harries,ImperialCollegeofScience,Technologyand
Medicine,London,UK,P.K.Hopke,ClarksonUniversity,USA,SirJohnHoughton,
MeteorologicalOffice,UK,N.J.King,EnvironmentalConsultant,UK,P.Leinster,Environment
Agency,UK,J.Lester,ImperialCollegeofScience,TechnologyandMedicine,UK,S.Matsui,
KyotoUniversity,Japan,D.H.Slater,Consultant,UK,T.G.Spiro,PrincetonUniversity,USA,D.
Taylor,AstraZenecaplc,UK,T.L.Theis,ClarksonUniversity,USA,SirFrederickWarner,
Consultant,UK.
   :
1 MininganditsEnvironmentalImpact 12 EndocrineDisruptingChemicals
2 WasteIncinerationandtheEnvironment 13 ChemistryintheMarineEnvironment
3 WasteTreatmentandDisposal 14 CausesandEnvironmentalImplicationsof
4 VolatileOrganicCompoundsinthe IncreasedUV-BRadiation
Atmosphere 15 FoodSafetyandFoodQuality
5 AgriculturalChemicalsandthe 16 AssessmentandReclamationof
Environment ContaminatedLand
6 ChlorinatedOrganicMicropollutants 17 GlobalEnvironmentalChange
7 ContaminatedLandanditsReclamation 18 EnvironmentalandHealthImpactofSolid
8 AirQualityManagement WasteManagementActivities
9 RiskAssessmentandRiskManagement 19 SustainabilityandEnvironmentalImpact
10 AirPollutionandHealth ofRenewableEnergySources
11 EnvironmentalImpactofPower
Generation
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Preface
The2002WorldSummitonSustainableDevelopmentinJohannesburgfocused
attentionoftheworld’smediaonenvironmentalissues,importantamongwhich
wasthedevelopmentofrenewableenergy(RE)sources.Thesearewidelyseenas
a means of combating climate change induced by rising levels of CO(cid:2) in the
atmosphere resulting from the combustion of fossil fuels. The rate of energy
consumptionispredictedtotripleoverthenext50yearsorso,emphasizingthe
needtodevelopnovelsourceswithlowerenvironmentalimpact.
Given that the current overwhelming dependence on coal, oil and gas for
powergeneration,heatingandtransportislikelytocontinueforsomeconsider-
able time into the future, there is need for increasing attention to be given to
improvingefficiencyandthedevelopmentofmethodsforcarbonsequestration.
Theroleofnuclearpowerisalsounderreview.Itisparticularlytimelythen,to
examinetheprospectsfortheso-calledrenewables,suchaswind,waveandtidal
power, thermal and photovoltaic solar, hydro, biomass and biogas. We have
commissionedagroupofleadingexpertstocontributeauthoritativereviewsof
thevariousaspectsofthesubjectinacriticalbutbalancedway.
ThefirstarticleisbyBernardBulkin,ChiefScientistatBPplc.Takingasits
startingpointananalysisofthechangesresultingfromthelast‘energycrisis’of
1973, this reviews ‘The Future of Today’s Energy Sources’ and so provides a
basis for evaluation of the emerging alternatives, including renewables. The
futuresupplyand demandfor coal, oil and gas in the various sectorsin which
theyareused,viz.transport,powergenerationandindustrial/domestic/agricul-
turalapplications,areexamined.Thisreviewconcludesthatshortageofsupply
will not be a driver for change in the near future and that increases in the
efficiencyofuseandthedevelopmentofeffectivemethodsforcarbonsequestra-
tionwillprolongtheroleoffossilfuels.
Further evaluation of the prospects for energy conservation and carbon
sequestration is included in the second article. Together with a critical assess-
v
Preface
mentoftheroleofnuclearpower,thissetsthesceneforashiftinfocustothenew
renewable energy technologies. In his article on ‘Sustainable Energy: Choices,
ProblemsandOpportunities’,DavidElliottoftheOpenUniversity’sEnergyand
EnvironmentResearchUnit examinesthe economic,socialand environmental
implicationsofthedevelopmentofsustainableenergysystemsandthestrategic
technologicalchoicesthatlieahead.Thearticleisrichindetailoncomparative
costsandrisks.
The integration of renewable energy generation into the electricity supply
system without compromising safety or reliability is key to the commercial
exploitationofRE.Thetechnologicalconsiderationsassociatedwithintegration
are analysed in the next article by David Infield and Paul Rowley of Lough-
boroughUniversity’sDepartmentofElectronicandElectricalEngineering.The
variabilityofmanyoftheREsources(e.g.wind)presentsproblemsforintegra-
tion,butthesecanlargelybeovercomebyaggregationofsupply(e.g.windfarms)
and demand (many consumers). The technical issues associated with network
integrationofwindpower,photovoltaics,waterpowerandbiomassareoutlined
hereandwaysofdealingwiththeintrinsicproblemsofstand-alonesystemsare
described.
The fourth article, written by Adrian Leoning of CPL Envirogas Ltd, is
concernedwiththepotentialforpowergenerationfromfreelyavailableorganic
material.Thisencompasseslandfillgas(‘energyfromwaste’),biomassandwaste
bio-oils,andincludesevaluationofbothtechnologicalandeconomicconsider-
ations.Then follows an article by Fiona Mullins, who is a Senior Associate of
Environmental Resources Management in Oxford. This addresses emissions
tradingschemesandtheirconsequencesonreduction/redistributionofenviron-
mentalburdensandimpacts.Itconcludesthatemissionstradingisemergingasa
‘licence to pollute’ in the early stages, but is likely to be an effective tool
for reducing greenhouse gases in the longer term. An article by the current
UK government Minister for Energy and Construction, Brian Wilson, then
outlines the government’srenewable energy policy, providing insights into the
workings of the Non-Fossil Fuel Obligation (NFFO) and other related policy
tools.
The final article, by Andrew Stirling of the Science and Technology Policy
ResearchUnit(SPRU)attheUniversityofSussex,offersacriticalanalysisofthe
methodscurrentlyinusefortheappraisalofsustainabilityofthevariousenergy
options. Conventional comparative risk assessment and environmental
cost—benefitanalysesofrenewableandotherelectricitysupplytechnologiesare
shownto be flawed.Therelationship betweenthese established‘science-based’
techniquesandthenewlyemerging‘precautionary’approachestosustainability
appraisalisdiscussedandsomepracticalwaysforwardarepresented.
Overall, we believe that this collection of articles provides a timely and
authoritativeexamination of many of the most important issues and concerns
relatingtorenewableenergysources.Theextenttowhichtheseoffersolutionsto
problemsofclimatechangeandsustainabilityisunderintensescrutinynowand
theinsightsprovidedbythesereviewarticlesmakethemessentialreadingforall
concerned with the environment. The volume is commended particularly to
vi
Preface
thoseengagedintheenergyindustries,bothtraditionalanddeveloping,topolicy
makers,consultantsandengineersworkinginthisfield,andtobothteachersand
studentsinhighereducation.
RonaldE.Hester
RoyM.Harrison
vii
Editors
RonaldE.Hester,BSc,DSc(London),PhD(Cornell),FRSC,CChem
RonaldE. Hesteris now EmeritusProfessor of Chemistryin the Universityof
York.HewasforshortperiodsaresearchfellowinCambridgeandanassistant
professoratCornellbeforebeingappointedtoalectureshipinchemistryinYork
in1965.HewasafullprofessorinYorkfrom1983to2001.Hismorethan300pub-
licationsaremainlyintheareaofvibrationalspectroscopy,latterlyfocusingon
time-resolvedstudiesof photoreactionintermediatesand on biomolecularsys-
temsinsolution.Heisactiveinenvironmentalchemistryandisafoundermember
andformerchairmanoftheEnvironmentGroupoftheRoyalSocietyofChemis-
tryandeditorof‘IndustryandtheEnvironmentinPerspective’(RSC,1983)and
‘UnderstandingOurEnvironment’(RSC,1986).AsamemberoftheCouncilofthe
UKScienceandEngineeringResearchCouncilandseveralofitssub-committees,
panelsandboards,hehasbeenheavilyinvolvedinnationalsciencepolicyandad-
ministration.Hewas,from1991to1993,amemberoftheUKDepartmentofthe
EnvironmentAdvisoryCommitteeonHazardousSubstancesandfrom1995to
2000wasamemberofthePublicationsandInformationBoardoftheRoyalSo-
cietyofChemistry.
Roy M. Harrison, BSc, PhD, DSc(Birmingham), FRSC, CChem, FRMetS,
HonMFPHM,HonFFOM
RoyM.HarrisonisQueenElizabethIIBirminghamCentenaryProfessorofEnvi-
ronmentalHealthintheUniversityofBirmingham.HewaspreviouslyLecturerin
EnvironmentalSciencesattheUniversityofLancasterandReaderandDirector
oftheInstituteofAerosolScienceattheUniversityofEssex.Hismorethan300
publicationsaremainlyinthefieldofenvironmentalchemistry,althoughhiscur-
rentworkincludesstudiesofhumanhealthimpactsofatmosphericpollutantsas
wellasresearchintothechemistryofpollutionphenomena.HeisapastChairman
oftheEnvironmentGroupoftheRoyalSocietyofChemistryforwhomhehas
edited‘Pollution:Causes,EffectsandControl’(RSC,1983;FourthEdition,2001)
and‘UnderstandingourEnvironment:AnIntroductiontoEnvironmentalChem-
istryandPollution’(RSC,ThirdEdition,1999).Hehasacloseinterestinscientific
andpolicyaspectsofairpollution,havingbeenChairmanoftheDepartmentof
EnvironmentQualityofUrbanAirReviewGroupandtheDETRAtmospheric
ParticlesExpertGroupaswellasamemberoftheDEFRAExpertPanelonAir
QualityStandards.HeiscurrentlyamemberoftheDEFRAAirQualityExpert
Group,theDEFRAAdvisoryCommitteeonHazardousSubstancesandtheDe-
partmentofHealthCommitteeontheMedicalEffectsofAirPollutants.
xiii
Contributors
B.J. Bulkin, BP plc, Brittanic House, 1 St James’s Square, London SW1Y4PD,
UK
D.A.Elliott,EnergyandEnvironmentResearchUnit,TheOpenUniversity,Mil-
tonKeynesMK76AA,UK
D.G.Infield,DepartmentofElectronicandElectricalEngineering,Loughborough
University,LoughboroughLE113TU,UK
A.Loening,CPLEnvirogasLtd,20—22QueenStreet,LondonW1X7PJ,UK
F. Mullins, Environmental Resources Management, Fernwell House, 76 Harpes
Road,OxfordOX27QL,UK
P.N.Rowley,DepartmentofElectronicandElectricalEngineering,Loughborough
University,LoughboroughLE113TU,UK
A.C. Stirling, Science and Technology Policy Research Unit, Mantell Building,
UniversityofSussex,BrightonBN19RF,UK
B. Wilson, Minister for Energy and Construction, Department of Trade and
Industry,1VictoriaStreet,LondonSW1H0ET,UK
xv
Contents
TheFutureofToday’sEnergySources 1
BernardJ.Bulkin
1 The1973EnergyCrisis 1
2 HowFossilFuelsHaveAffectedOurLives 3
3 EnergyUseintheWorldToday:FuelsandHowTheyAreUsed 3
4 NatureofOil,CoalandGas 5
5 ReservesofFossilFuels 9
6 TheFutureofDemand 9
7 Sequestration 16
SustainableEnergy:Choices,ProblemsandOpportunities 19
DavidElliott
1 Introduction 19
2 ClimateChange 20
3 CarbonSequestration 21
4 EnergyEfficientGeneration 23
5 EndUseEnergyEfficiency 24
6 NuclearPower 26
7 Renewables 29
8 ProgresswithRenewables 30
9 AssessingtheCostsofSustainableEnergy 34
10 Risks 37
11 CarbonAccountingandEnergyAnalysis 39
12 LandUse 41
IssuesinEnvironmentalScienceandTechnology,No.19
SustainabilityandEnvironmentalImpactofRenewableEnergySources
©TheRoyalSocietyofChemistry,2003
ix
Contents
13 ChoicesforaSustainableEnergyFuture 43
14 Conclusions 46
RenewableEnergy:TechnologyConsiderationsandElectricityIntegration 49
DavidInfieldandPaulRowley
1 Introduction 49
2 ABriefIntroductiontoIntegrationIssues 49
3 WindPower 55
4 Photovoltaics 60
5 WaterPower 63
6 Biomass 65
7 SmallGridsandIsolatedSystems 66
LandfillGasandRelatedEnergySources:AnaerobicDigesters;
BiomassEnergySystems 69
AdrianLoening
1 Introduction 69
2 EnergyPotential 71
3 FuelProductionTechnology 75
4 ConversionTechnology 80
5 Constraints 80
6 Economics 83
7 Conclusions:EnvironmentalImpactsandCarbonCertification 85
EmissionsTradingSchemes:AreTheya‘LicencetoPollute’? 89
FionaMullins
1 Introduction 89
2 PracticalExperienceofEmissionsTrading 91
3 Conclusions 102
UKGovernmentPolicyonRenewableEnergy 105
BrianWilson
1 Introduction 105
2 NFFOandInitialSuccess 106
3 TowardstheObligation 106
4 SupportingtheObligation 108
5 WhatNextforRenewables 111
x