Surface Water Photochemistry PDF
Preview Surface Water Photochemistry
COMPREHENSIVESERIESINPHOTOCHEMICALAND PHOTOBIOLOGICALSCIENCE Series Editors Prof Giulio Jori University of Padova, Italy and Dr Massimo Trotta Istituto per i Processi Chimico Fisici, CNR Bari, Italy COMPREHENSIVESERIESINPHOTOCHEMISTRYANDPHOTOBIOLOGY Series Editors: Giulio Jori and Massimo Trotta Titles in this Series: Volume 1 UV Effects in Aquatic Organisms and Ecosystems Edited by E.W. Helbling and H. Zagarese Volume 2 Photodynamic Therapy Edited by T. Patrice Volume 3 Photoreceptors and Light Signalling Edited by A. Batschauer Volume 4 Lasers and Current Optical Techniques in Biology Edited by G. Palumbo and R. Pratesi Volume 5 FromDNAPhotolesionstoMutations,SkinCancerandCellDeath Edited by E´. Sage, R. Drouin and M. Rouabhia Volume 6 Flavins: Photochemistry and Photobiology Edited by E. Silva and A.M. Edwards Volume 7 Photodynamic Therapy with ALA: A Clinical Handbook Edited by R. Pottier, B. Krammer, R. Baumgartner, H. Stepp Volume 8 Primary Processes of Photosynthesis, Part 1: Principles and Apparatus Edited by G. Renger Volume 9 Primary Processes of Photosynthesis, Part 2: Principles and Apparatus Edited by G. Renger Volume 10 Biophysical and Physiological Effects of Solar Radiation on Human Skin Edited by Paolo U. Giacomoni Volume 11 PhotodynamicInactivationofMicrobialPathogens:Medicaland Environmental Applications Edited by Michael R. Hamblin and Giulio Jori Volume 12 Surface Water Photochemistry Edited by Paola Calza and Davide Vione Visit our website at www.rsc.org/books COMPREHENSIVE SERIES IN PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY – VOLUME 12 Surface Water Photochemistry Editors Paola Calza Universit`a di Torino Dipartimento di Chimica Via P. Giuria 5 10125 Torino Italy Email: [email protected] and Davide Vione Universit`a di Torino Dipartimento di Chimica Via P. Giuria 5 10125 Torino Italy Email: [email protected] ISBN:978-1-78262-043-3 PDFeISBN:978-1-78262-215-4 ISSN:2041-9716 AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary rEuropeanSocietyforPhotobiology2016 Allrightsreserved Apartfromfairdealingforthepurposesofresearchfornon-commercialpurposesorfor privatestudy,criticismorreview,aspermittedundertheCopyright,DesignsandPatents Act1988andtheCopyrightandRelatedRightsRegulations2003,thispublicationmaynot bereproduced,storedortransmitted,inanyformorbyanymeans,withouttheprior permissioninwritingofTheRoyalSocietyofChemistryorthecopyrightowner,orinthe caseofreproductioninaccordancewiththetermsoflicencesissuedbytheCopyright LicensingAgencyintheUK,orinaccordancewiththetermsofthelicencesissuedby theappropriateReproductionRightsOrganizationoutsidetheUK.Enquiriesconcerning reproductionoutsidethetermsstatedhereshouldbesenttoTheRoyalSocietyof Chemistryattheaddressprintedonthispage. TheRSCisnotresponsibleforindividualopinionsexpressedinthiswork. Theauthorshavesoughttolocateownersofallreproducedmaterialnotintheirown possessionandtrustthatnocopyrightshavebeeninadvertentlyinfringed. PublishedbyTheRoyalSocietyofChemistry, ThomasGrahamHouse,SciencePark,MiltonRoad, CambridgeCB40WF,UK RegisteredCharityNumber207890 Forfurtherinformationseeourwebsiteatwww.rsc.org Preface for the ESP Series in Photochemical and Photobiological Sciences ‘‘It’s not the substance, it’s the dose which makes something poisonous!’’ WhenParacelsius,aGermanphysicianofthefourteenthcentury,madethis statementheprobablydidnotthinkaboutlightasoneofthemostobvious environmental factors. But his statement applies as well to light. While we need light, for example, for vitamin D production, too much light might causeskincancer.Thedosemakesthedifference.Thesediversefindingsof light effects have attracted the attention of scientists for centuries. The photo-sciences represent a dynamic multidisciplinary field which includes such diverse subjects as behavioural responses of single cells, cures for certain types of cancer and the protective potential of tanning lotions. It includes photobiology and photochemistry, photomedicine as well as the technology for light production, filtering and measurement. Light is a common theme in all these areas. In recent decades a more molecular centredapproachchangedboththedepthandthequalityofthetheoretical as well as the experimental foundation of photosciences. An example of the relationship between global environment and the bio- sphere istherecentdiscoveryofozonedepletionandthe resulting increase in high-energy ultraviolet radiation. The hazardous effects of high-energy ultra-violet radiation on all living systems is now well established. This discoveryoftheresultofozonedepletionputphotosciencesatthecentreof public interest with the result that, in an unparalleled effort, scientists and politicians worked closely together to come to international agreements to stop the pollution of theatmosphere. The changed recreational behaviour and the correlation with several diseases in which sunlight or artificial light sources play a major role in the causation of clinical conditions (e.g. porphyrias, polymorphic SurfaceWaterPhotochemistry EditedbyPaolaCalzaandDavideVione rEuropeanSocietyforPhotobiology2016 PublishedbytheRoyalSocietyofChemistry,www.rsc.org v vi PREFACE photodermatoses,Xerodermapigmentosumandskincancers)havebeenwell documented. As a result, in some countries (e.g. Australia) public services inform people about the potential risk of extended periods of sun exposure every day. The problems are often aggravated by the phototoxic or photo- allergic reactions produced by a variety of environmental pollutants, food additives or therapeutic and cosmetic drugs. Ontheotherhand,ifproperlyused,light-stimulatedprocessescaninduce importantbeneficialeffectsinbiologicalsystems,suchastheelucidationof several aspects of cell structure and function. Novel developments are centred around photodiagnostic and phototherapeutic modalities for the treatment of cancer, artherosclerosis, several autoimmune diseases, neonatal jaundice and others. In addition, classic research areas such as vision and photosynthesis are still very active. Some of these developments are unique to photobiology, since the peculiar physico-chemical properties of electronically excited biomolecules often lead to the promotion of reactions which are characterized by high levels of selectivity in space and time. Besides the biologically centred areas, technical developments have pavedthewayfortheharnessingofsolarenergytoproducewarmwaterand electricity or the development of environmentally friendly techniques for addressing problems of large social impact (e.g. the decontamination of polluted waters). While also in use in Western countries, these techniques are of great interest for developing countries. The European Society for Photobiology (ESP) is an organization for developing and coordinating the very different fields of photosciences in terms of public knowledge and scientific interests. Due to the ever- increasing demand for a comprehensive overview of the photosciences the ESP decided to initiate an encyclopaedic series, the Comprehensive Series in PhotochemicalandPhoto-biologicalSciences.Thisseriesisintendedtogivean in-depth coverage over all the very different fields related to light effects. It will allow investigators, physicians, students, industry and laypersons to obtainanupdatedrecordofthestate-of-the-artinspecificfields,includinga ready access to the recent literature. Most importantly, such reviews give a critical evaluation of the directions that the field is taking, outline hotly debated or innovative topics and even suggest a redirection if appropriate. It is our intention to produce the monographs at a sufficiently high rate to generate a timely coverage of both well-established and emerging topics. As a rule, the individual volumes are commissioned; however, comments, suggestions or proposals for new subjects are welcome. Donat-P. Hader and Giulio Jori Spring 2002 Volume Preface The idea behind the creation of this volume was to give substance to the Photochemistry part of the Comprehensive Series in Photochemical and Photobiological Sciences. For this reason, the book provides a thorough description of photochemical processes in surface waters, including direct and indirect photolysis reactions. The main objective is to give insight into boththefunctioningofecosystemsandthebehaviorofemergingpollutants inthoseecosystems.Experiencedandwell-knownauthorshavecontributed their knowledge and expertise to the individual chapters. The different book chapters will, in fact, document the latest research concerning the photochemical fate of organic pollutants in surface waters and topics such astheenvironmentalformationandreactivityoftransientspecies,aswellas a chemometric approach to the study of environmental photochemistry. Particular attention will be given to the role of natural organic matter in photochemical reactions and to recently developed tools, analytical techni- ques and strategies for the determination of primary compounds and transformation intermediates in the aqueous environment. Thebook is dividedinto14 chapters,eachwithadistinctfocus.The first chapter gives a general overview of the topic and introduces the contents that will be expanded in the following chapters. Chapter2dealswiththechemicalandbiologicalprocessesthataffectthe chemical composition of surface waters, including the seasonal and the long-term trends. This is important because water chemistry is closely related to direct and, most notably, indirect photochemical reactions. Chapter 3 gives insight into the penetration of sunlight into the water column of natural water bodies. Photochemical processes are strongly affectedbysunlightirradiance,thepenetrationofwhichinthewatercolumn depends on several components, including the dissolved organic matter. Chapter 4 provides examples of how pollutants can be directly trans- formeduponabsorptionofsunlight.Particularattentionisgiventoreaction SurfaceWaterPhotochemistry EditedbyPaolaCalzaandDavideVione rEuropeanSocietyforPhotobiology2016 PublishedbytheRoyalSocietyofChemistry,www.rsc.org vii viii VOLUME PREFACE classes that are common to a wide variety of substrates and that can take place in the presence of particular molecular structures. Chapter 5 gives insight into the photoreactivity of organic matter, including its capacity to both produce and scavenge reactive species, with particular attention to the reactivity of its different size fractions. Chapter 6 provides insight into the use of fluorescence techniques (with particular focus on the excitation–emission matrix) for the characterization of organic matter in surface waters and the identification of photoactive material, most notably humic substances. In Chapter 7, an overview is given of the main processes involved in the generation of (cid:2)OH radicals (photochemical formation upon irradiation of naturalorganicmatter,nitrateandnitrite)andintheirscavenginginnatural waters. The results of current approaches aimed at the prediction of (cid:2)OH reactivity toward organic compounds are also presented. Chapter8describestherole playedbysingletoxygeninsurface waters.It is produced in aqueous solution by photoexcited organic matter, it has a microheterogeneous distribution inthe bulk phase andinthehydrophobic cores of humic substances, and it may have important implications for the degradation of hydrophilic and hydrophobic contaminants. Chapter 9 gives insight into the transformation processes of organic compoundsinthepresenceofironspecies underirradiation,includingthe photochemistry of iron complexes. Particular attention is devoted to the speciation of iron under conditions that are relevant to surface waters. Chapter 10 provides a model approach to quantitatively assess radiation absorption in multicomponent systems, and the associated generation of transient species, by irradiation of photosensitizers such as natural organic matter, nitrate and nitrite. By this approach, one derives important impli- cations for the modeling of pollutant phototransformation kinetics. Chapter 11 describes the crucial role played by chemometric methods, based on the design of experiments and surface response methodology, in the understanding of the statistically significant variables that affect the photoinduced processes. Chapter 12 presents the more recent approaches used in environmental analysis. Particular attention is given to the description of targeted/untar- geted strategy and to the choice of suitable instrumentation for monitoring micropollutants in surface waters. Chapter 13 gives insight into the techniques that can be used to assess the transformation (including the phototransformation) of pollutants in environmental waters. These techniques can also be used in laboratory experimentsto simulatetheabiotictransformationofpollutantsoccurringin theeuphoticzoneandleadingtopotentiallyharmfultransformationproducts. Chapter 14 provides a case study, namely the photodegradation of a pollutant (the herbicide Irgarol) by Fenton and photo-Fenton reactions in river water. Thefocusonmodelingandontransformationintermediatesshouldmake the book appealing not only to academics but also to people working in VOLUME PREFACE ix chemical manufacturing industries and dealing with the assessment of the environmental persistence of chemicals. Companies involved in nano- materials or pharmaceuticals production should be interested in under- standing the environmental transformations to which their products are subjected once discharged. For this reason, this book aims at being helpful in different ways to analysts, environmental chemists, toxicologists, hydrologists, environment scientists and technologists, risk assessors and water treatment consultants. In addition to professionals, anyone with a deep interest in the covered fields, as well as teachers and students at the undergraduate and postgraduate level, would be able to use some of the material presented here to get insight into the photochemistry of surface waters. WewouldliketotakethisopportunitytoexpressgratitudetoDrMassimo Trotta and Prof. Giulio Nori for giving us the opportunity to edit this book, theRoyal Society of Chemistryteam and, inparticular,Ms AntoniaPass for her collaboration and patience during the production of this volume. We would also like to thank all colleagues who agreed to be involved in this project, for their excellent contributions to this book.
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