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Surface Mining 2nd Edition Edited By B.A. Kennedy SME Surface Mining 2nd Edition Edited By B.A. Kennedy Published by Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc. © 1990 by the Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration. All rights reserved. Electronic edition published 2009. Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc. (SME) 8307 Shaffer Parkway Littleton, Colorado, USA 80127 (303) 973-9550 / (800) 763-3132 www.smenet.org SME advances the worldwide mining and minerals community through information exchange and professional de- velopment.With members in more than 50 countries, SME is the world’s largest association of mining and minerals professionals. Copyright © 1990 Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc. Electronic edition published 2009. ISBN 978-0-87335-303-8 All Rights Reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Information contained in this work has been obtained by SME, Inc., from sources believed to be reliable. However, neither SME nor its authors guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information published herein, and neither SME nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or damages arising out of use of this information. This work is published with the understanding that SME and its authors are supplying information but are not at- tempting to render engineering or other professional services. If such services are required, the assistance of an ap- propriate professional should be sought. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Any statement or views presented here are those of the author and are not necessarily those of SME. The mention of trade names for commercial products does not imply the approval or endorsement of SME. © 1990 by the Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration. All rights reserved. Electronic edition published 2009. Preface The first reference text on surface mining was published by the American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers, Inc., in1968 and was appropri ately titled "Surface Mining." That volume was the product of the dedicated labors of Professor Eugene P. Pfleider, his 3 coordinating editors, and 89 authors. Now, 22 years later, the Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc. (formerly the SOCiety of Mining Engineers of AIM E) is publishing a completely new "Surface Mining" reference text. This book has involved a great deal of effort and perseverance by the authors, chapter editors, and coordinating editors. The intent of this revised edition was to completely rewrite, expand, and update the first edition to provide both a reference book for the working engineer and a textbook for the mining student. The book has taken far longer to prepare than the original ambitious plan and almost lost some of its authors, who had already written their contributions, when the Society had to shelve the project for two years due to financial constraints. The Society and the profession are deeply indebted to the authors and editors who contributed both their knowledge and an enormous amount of time to this project. In addition, a very special acknowledgment is due to Marianne Snedeker, formerly Manager of Publications and currently Manager of Book Publishing, and her staff who have kept the project on course and organized during its development. Special recognition is given the Seeley W. Mudd Memorial Fund Committee of AIME for financial support of the publication. We hope that this publication will prove useful to many minerals industry professionals worldwide. Dec. 8, 1989 Bruce A. Kennedy Jakarta, Indonesia Editor iii © 1990 by the Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration. All rights reserved. Electronic edition published 2009. Contributors Editor Bruce A. Kennedy Managing Director PT Pels art Management Services Jakarta, Indonesia Associate Editors Lee R. Rice Raj K. Singhal Lee R. Rice and Associates Energy Mines and Resources Canada Littleton, CO Devon, AB, Canada Editorial Board and Chapter Editors Richard A. Bideaux Guerdon E. Jackson Robert Laurich Consultant Management Consultant Principal Engineer Oro Valley, AZ Tucson, AZ Lithium Corp. of America Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Gastonia, NC Chapter 5 Richard L. Brown Thys B. Johnson Vice President Exploration Associate Director Donald O. Rausch Asarco Inc. Natural Resources Research Institute Retired New York, NY University of Minnesota Lakewood, CO Chapter 2 Duluth, MN Chapter 8 Chapter 6 Hugh W. Evans Lee W. Saperstein Consultant Bruce A. Kennedy Chairman Union Terminal Assn., National Assn. Managing Director Dept. of Mining Engineering of 10th Mountain Division PT Pelsart Management Services University of Kentucky Cincinnati, OH Jakarta, Indonesia Lexington, KY Chapter 6 Chapters 1 and 9 Robert F. Winkle Vice President Pincock, Allen & Holt, Inc. Tucson, AZ Chapter 7 Authors Aiken, George E. Socorro, NM Betzler, William F. Retired Chap. 2, Sec. 2.10.3 Retired Formerly with Kaiser Engineers, Inc. Minnesota Dept. of Revenue Oakland, CA Bauer, Alan* Buhl, MN Chap. 6, Sec. 6.3 Professor Chap. 3, Sec. 3.4.4 Dept. of Mining Engineering Armstrong, David Queens' University Bideaux, Richard A. Mintec, Inc. Kingston, ON, Canada Consultant Tucson, AZ Chap. 6, Secs. 6.1.2 and 6.2.1 Oro Valley, AZ Chap. 5, Sec. 5.1 Chap. 3, Sec. 3.1 Bentzen, Edwin H., III Ash, Richard L. Senior Processing Engineer Bolin, David S.* Retired Ore Sorters Inc. Pincock, Allen & Holt, Inc. Formerly Professor Lakewood, CO Lakewood, CO Dept. of Mining Engineering Chap. 2, Sec. 2.10 Chap. 3, Sec. 3.4.1 University of Missouri-Rolla Rolla, MO Berry, Charles W. Bohnet, Ernest L. Chap. 6, Sec. 6.2.2 Professor President Mining Engineering Dept. Pincock, Allen & Holt, Inc. Barker James M. University of Utah Lakewood, CO Industrial Minerals Geologist Salt Lake City, UT Chap. 5, Secs. 5. 4 and 5.6 New Mexico Bureau of Mines & Chap. 8, Sec. 8.2 Mineral Resources Bolles, John L. iv © 1990 by the Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration. All rights reserved. Electronic edition published 2009. CONTRIBUTORS v Retired Elliott City, MD Fletcher, David Silver City, NM Chap. 6, Sec. 6.6.2 Mineral Economics Dept. Chap. 9, Sec. 9.4 Colorado School of Mines Cole, Clifford F. Golden, CO Borquez, Guillermo V. Senior Project Manager Chap. 8, Sec. 8.2 Bechtel, Inc. TRC Environmental Consultants, Inc. San Francisco, CA Englewood, CO Gilliss, Archie M. Chap. 4, Sec. 4.2 Chap. 6, Sec. 6.7.2 Falkirk Mining Co. North American Coal Corp. Boyd. James W. Crosby, William A. Bismarck, NO President President Chap. 6, Sec. 6.12.4 John T. Boyd Co. Mining Resource Engineering Ltd. Pittsburgh, PA Kingston, ON, Canada Goldman, Harold B. Chap. 3, Sec. 3.4.3 Chap. 6, Secs. 6.1.2 and 6.2.1 Geological Consultants, Inc. San Francisco, CA Brazda, Lois L. Dibble, M.F. Chap. 2, Sec. 2.10.23 Amoco Corp. Consulting Engineer Chicago,IL Lakeland, FL Goodner, William R. Chap. 4, Sec. 4.3 Chap. 2, Sec. 2.10.20 Stearns Catalytic Denver, CO Breeding, William H. Donoso, Enrique Morel Chap. 6, Sec. 6.5.4 W.H. Breeding & ASSOCiates, Inc. President Summit, NJ Chuquicamata Div. Goodrich, R.F. Chap. 2, Sec. 2.7 CODELCO-Chile Reclamation Engineer Santiago, Chile IMC Fertilizer, Inc. Brobst, Donald A. Chap. 9, Sec. 9.6 Bartow,FL Consulting Geologist Chap. 6, Sec. 6.6.4 Reston, VA Dorling, J.P. Chap. 2, Sec. 2.10.2 Morrison-Knudsen Engineers, Inc Grandt, Alten F. Boise, 10 Director of Reclamation Brown, Richard L. Chap. 2, Sec. 2.9 Peabody Coal Co. Vice President Exploration St. Louis, MO Asarco. Inc. Duncan, Larry D. Chap. 6, Sec. 6.6.7 New York, NY Stearns Catalytic Chap. 2, Sec. 2.1 Denver, CO Grundstedt, Steven R. Chap. 6, Sec. 6.5.3 Mining Analyst Burns, Charles L. Morgan, Paul & Co. Vice President Dupree, Annette C. Sydney, NSW, Australia Government Relations North Quincy, MA Chap. 8, Sec. 8.6 Phelps Dodge Corp. Chap. 8, Sec. 8.4 Washington, DC Gunnett, John W. Chap. 8, Sec. 8.9 Elayer, R.W. Skelly and Loy Manager-Geology Harrisburg, PA Call, Richard D. Morrison-Knudsen Engineers, Inc. Chap. 6, Sec. 6.3 President Boise, 10 Call and Nicholas Inc. Chap. 2, Sec. 2.9 Hardie, Byron S. Tucson, AZ Geological Consultant Chap. 6, Sec. 6.8 Elbrond, Jorgen Tucson, AZ Professor Chap. 2, Sec. 2.3 Canton, Perry A. Dept. of Mineral Engineering Minnesota Dept. of Natural Resources Ecole Poly technique Hartman, Howard L. S1. Paul, MN Montreal, PQ, Canada Retired Chap. 3, Sec. 3.4.4 Chap. 6, Sec. 6.5.9 University of Alabama Consultant Carr, Donald D. Files, Thomas I. Carmichael, CA Branch Head Project Manager Chap. 6, Sec. 6.1.1 Mineral Resources & Data Marion Div., Dresser Industries Inc. Management Marion,OH Hays, Ronald M. Indiana Geological Survey Chap. 6, Sec. 6.4 Mining and Metallurgical Consultant Bloomington, IN Ronald M. Hays and Associates Chap. 2, Sec. 2.10.11 Fitch, David C. Edina, MN Manager, Southwest Exploration Chap. 3, Sec. 3.4.4 Clar, Michael L. Hecla Mining Co. Chap. 6, Secs. 6.5.2, 6.5.5, 6.5.6 Secretary-Treasurer Reno, NV 6.5.7 Engineering Technologies Chap. 2, Sec. 2.4 © 1990 by the Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration. All rights reserved. Electronic edition published 2009. vi SURFACE MINING Hemenway, David S. Mining Engineering Dept. Homestake Mining Co. Senior Counsel Colorado School of Mines Lead, SO Peabody Holding Co., Inc. Golden, CO Chap. 9, Sec. 9.4 St. Louis, MO Chap. 6, Sec. 6.12.3 Chap. 8, Sec. 8.7 Lowell, J. David Kadey, Frederic L., Jr. Geological Consultant Hennessy, J. Allen Retired Lowell Mineral Exploration Principal Mining Geologist Lantana, FL Nogales, AZ Mining & Metals Div. Chap. 2, Secs. 2.10.6, 2.10.19 Chap. 2, Sec. 2.2 Bechtel Civil & Minerals, Inc. San Francisco, CA Kahle, Michael B. Madson, James L. Chap. 2, Sec. 2.8 Director of Marketing Manager, Morenci Branch Phillips Coal Co. Phelps Dodge Corp. Henning, Dieter Richardson, TX Morenci, AZ Reinbraun-Consulting GmbH Chap. 6, Sec. 6.14 Chap. 9, Sec. 9.4 Rheinbraun K61n, Germany Chap. 9, Sec. 9.2 Kennedy, Bruce A. Malouf, E.E. Managing Director Consultant Heyborne, L.S. PT Pelsart Management Services Salt Lake City, UT Manager Jakarta, Indonesia Chap. 6, Sec. 6.9.1 Mining Operations Chap. 9, Sec. 9.1 Mine and Plant Operations Group Marsden, Ralph W.* Bechtel Civil & Minerals Inc. Kerch, Richard L. Professor Emeritus San Francisco, CA Consolidation Coal Co. Dept. of Geology Chap. 8, Sec. 8.5 Pittsburgh, PA University of Minnesota Chap. 6, Sec. 6.7.2 Duluth, MN Hoffman, Clarence W. Chap. 2, Sec. 2.5 Performance Associates, Inc. Knudsen, Harvey P. Danville, CA Associate Professor Marshall, Darryl A. Chap. 6, Sec. 6.11.2 Mining Engineering Dept. Fluor Daniel Montana College of Mineral Science & Redwood City, CA Hoyle, Daniel Rodriguez Technology Chap. 8, Sec. 8.6 Mineral Industry Consultant Butte, MT Formerly Vice President Chap. 3, Sec. 3.2 Mathieson, Graham Southern Peru Copper Corp. General Manager Lima, Peru Kunze, Lutz Griffin Coal Mining Co., Ltd. Chap. 9, Sec. 9.5 Vice President Perth, WA, Australia Smith-Emery Co. Chap. 3, Sec. 3.3 Huber, Douglas W. Los Angeles, CA Mining Adviser Chap. 5, Sec. 5.6 McCarter, M.K. USAID/ISLAMABAD Agency for Inter- Professor national Development Leroy, A.J. Mining Engineering Dept. US Dept. of State Palabora Mining Co., Ltd. University of Utah Washington, DC Phalaborwa, Rep. of South Africa Salt Lake City, UT Chap. 6, Sec. 6.12.1 Chap. 9, Sec. 9.3 Chap. 6, Sec. 6.9.2 Humphrey, James D. Levitt, Brian J. Mclndoo, Robert N. Chief Engineer - Marketing Develop- Materials Handling Engineer Babbitt, MN ment Stearns Catalytic Chap. 6, Sec. 6.11.1 Marion Div., Dresser Industries, Inc. Denver, CO Marion,OH Chap. 6, Sec. 6.5.3 McKee, Guy W. Chap. 6, Sec. 6.4 Professor of Agronomy Li, Ta M. The Pennsylvania State University Hutnik, Russell J. Chief Operating Officer University Park, PA Professor of Forest Ecology Pincock, Allen & Holt, Inc. Chap. 6, Sec. 6.6.6 The Pennsylvania State University Lakewood, CO University Park, PA Chap. 1, Sec. 1.2 McKereghan, G.F. Chap. 6, Sec. 6.6.6 International Minerals & Chemical Co. LiII, John W. Bartow, FL Jackson, Guerdon E. American Barrick Resources Corp. Chap. 6, Sec. 6.6.4 Mining Consultant Toronto, ON, Canada Tucson, AZ Chap. 9, Sec. 9.3 McKie, P.W. Chap. 4, Sec. 4.1 Director Loving, Gary A. Mine & Excavated Structures Design Johnson, Wesley G. General Manager Morrison-Knudsen Engineers, Inc. © 1990 by the Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration. All rights reserved. Electronic edition published 2009. CONTRIBUTORS vii Boise,ID Procurement Services Associates Chief Geological Engineer Chap. 2, Sec. 2.9 Stockton, CA Inspiration Consolidated Copper Co. Chap. 8, Sec. 8.8 Claypool, AZ Meek, FA, Jr. Chap. 6, Sec. 6.8 Upshur Mine Complex Pratt, Morton E. Enoxy Coal Inc. Retired Snedeker, Marianne Buckhannon, WV Formerly Executive Engineer Manager of Book Publishing Chap. 6, Sec. 6.7.1 Utah International Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Moraga, CA Exploration, Inc. Misagi, Leo Chap. 9, Sec. 9.8 Littleton, CO Head Chap. 1, Secs. 1.1 and 1.2 MSHA Academy Presley. Gordon C. US Dept. of Labor Consultant Sullivan, Ruth Beckley, WV Englewood. CO Enoxy Coal, Inc. Chap. 6, Sec. 6.12.2 Chap. 2, Sec. 2.10 Cincinnati. OH Chap. 7, Sec. 7.2.2 Morey, Philip G. Ramani, Raja V. President Professor and Head Sweigard. Richard J. Jval, Inc. Mineral Engineering Dept. Assistant Professor Redwood City, CA The Pennsylvania State University Mining Engineering Dept. Chap. 5, Sec. 5.7 University Park, PA University of Kentucky Chap. 6, Secs. 6.5.1, 6.5.8. 6.6.2 Lexington, KY Morris, Jerald S. Chap. 6, Sec. 6.6.2 Vice President, Operations Rausch, Donald O. Central Stone Co. Retired Thomas, Stephen W. Hannibal, MO Lakewood, CO Manager, Acquisitions and Develop Chap. 8, Sec. 8.6 Chap. 8, Sec. 8.1 ment Cyprus Gold Co. Mortensen, Dennis K. Reed, Ronald G. Englewood, CO Vice President, General Manager Pincock, Allen & Holt, Inc. Chap. 3, Sec. 3.4.5 Cyprus Miami Mining Corp. Lakewood, CO Claypool, AZ Chap. 5, Sec. 5.5 Thompson, James V. Chap. 6, Sec. 6.10 Consultant Rendu, Jean-Michel Lafayette, CA Olson, Richard H. Newmont Gold Co. Chap. 4, Sec. 4.2 President Denver, CO Industrial Minerals Evaluations, Inc. Chap. 3, Sec. 3.3 Thornburg, H. Andrew Golden CO Vice Chairman Chap. 2, Secs. 2.10, 2.10.24, 2.10.28 Ritchie, M.1. Security Pacific Capital Markets Group Pathfinder Mines Corp. Los Angeles, CA Parker, Harry M. San Francisco, CA Chap. 4, Sec. 4.3 Vice President Chap. 9, Sec. 9.7 Mineral Resource Development, Inc. Ulatowski, Tomek San Mateo, CA Rogowski, A.S. Senior Vice President Chap. 3, Sec. 3.4.2 Soil Scientist Crocker National Bank US Dept. of Agriculture San Francisco, CA Parkison, Gary Agricultural Research Service/North Chap. 4, Sec. 4.4 Westmont Mining Inc. Atlantic Area Tucson, AZ University Park, PA Vickers, Edward Chap. 2, Sec. 2.10.27 Chap. 6, Sec. 6.6.5 Kailua Kona, HI Chap. 4, Sec. 4.4 Parr, Clayton J. Saperstein, Lee W. Kimball, Parr, Crockett & Waddoups Chairman Voige, Raymond C. Salt Lake City, UT Dept. of Mining Engineering Mine Safety Appliances Co. Chap. 2, Sec. 2.11 University of Kentucky Pittsburgh, PA Lexington, KY Chap. 6, Sec. 6.13 Phelps, L.B. Chap. 6 .• Sec. 6.6.1 Assistant Professor, Mining Waleski, William E. Engineering Sargent, Fred B. Belle Ayre Mine, Western Div. The Pennsylvania State University Vice President, Sales & Marketing Amax Coal Co. University Park, PA Marion Div., Dresser Industries. Inc. Gillette, WY Chap. 6, Sec. 6.6.3 Marion,OH Chap. 7, Sec. 7.2.4 Chap. 6, Sec. 6.4 Plute, Daniel P. Waples, Bee R., Jr.* President Savely, James P. Vice President © 1990 by the Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration. All rights reserved. Electronic edition published 2009. viii SURFACE MINING Mineral Div. California University of Pennsylvania Woodring, Kenneth Kaiser Engineers, Inc. California, PA President Oakland, CO Chap. 6, Sec. 6.6.5 Hobet Mining Co. Chap. 4, Sec. 4.1 Madison, WV Weise, Hans Chap. 7, Sec. 7.2.2 Ward, Willard E., II Reinbraun-Consulting GmbH Geologist Reinbraun Koln, Germany Yu, A.T. Energy Resources Div. Chap. 9, Sec. 9.2 Retired Geological Survey of Alabama Formerly President Tuscaloosa, AL Wendt, Clancy J. ORBA Corp. Chap. 2, Sec. 2.6 District Manager Clearwater, FL Westmont Mining, Inc. Chap. 6, Sec. 6.10 Ward, Milton H. Sparks, NV President and Chief Operating Officer Chap. 3, Sec. 3.4.5 Zdunczyk, Mark J. Freeport McMoran Senior Geologist New Orleans, LA Whittle, Jeff Dunn Geoscience Corp. Chap. 8, Sec. 8.3 Director Albany, NY Whittle Programming Pty. Ud. Chap. 2, Sec. 2.10.22 Weber, Kenneth J. North Balwyn, Vic., Australia Consultant Chap. 5, Sec. 5.3 Zimmer, G.S. Iron Mountain, MI President Chap. 7, Sec. 7.2 Wicken, Oscar M. GSZ Inc. SRM Associates Tucson, AZ Weinrich, B.E. West Palm Beach, FL Chap. 7, Sec. 7.2.5 Assistant Professor of Mathematics Chap. 2, Sec. 2.10.13 *D eceased © 1990 by the Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration. All rights reserved. Electronic edition published 2009. Table of Contents Preface • Bruce A. Kennedy..... ..... ......... ...... ..... ..... ..... ....... ....... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ............ ....... ..... ...... ..... ..... ... iii Contributors. .. ...................................................................................... ............................... .............. .... ..... ... iv Chapter 1. Introduction 1.1 History of Mining' M. Snedeker .............................................................................................. 1 1.2 Current and Future Trends • T.M Li, M. Snedeker ............................................................... .. 8 Chapter 2. Exploration and Geology Techniques 2.1 Overview of Exploration· R.L. Brown .............. .................. ..................... ........... ...... ............... 15 2.2 Base Metal Exploration and Geology • J.D. Lowell ................................................................. 22 2.3 Precious Metals Exploration and Geology' B.S. Hardie ......................................................... 28 2.4 Uranium Exploration and Geology' D.C. Fitch ....................................................................... 35 2.5 Iron Ore Exploration and Geology· R. W. Marsden ................................................................. 48 2.6 Coal· W. E. Ward, " .. .......... ...... ....... ........... ...... ...... ............ ...... ...... ........... ..... .... ............ ........ 65 2.7 Placer· W.H. Breeding............................................................................................................ 77 2.8 Tar Sands Exploration and Geology' J.A. Hennessy................... .......... ............... ................. 86 2.9 Oil Shale Exploration and Geology· R. W. Elayer, I.P. Dorfing, F. W. McKie ........................... 91 2.10 Industrial Minerals, R.H. Olson, E.H. Bentzen, III, G.C. Presley ............................................ 105 2.10.1 Asbestos .................................................................................................................................. 105 2.10.2 Barium and Strontium Minerals' D.A. Brobst.. .................................... ............. ..... ................. 116 2.10.3 Borate Exploration J.M Barker................. ......... ........... ............... ............................................ 120 2.10.4 Chromite .................................................................................................................................. 126 2.10.5 Clays ........................................................................................................................................ 131 2.10.6 Diatomite· F.L. Kadey, Jr. ....................................................................................................... 153 2.10.7 Feldspar ................................................................................................................................... 159 2.10.8 Fluorspar ........ ...... ............ ................. ........ ...... ................ .......... ............. ................................. 163 2.10.9 Gypsum and Anhydrite ............................................................................................................ 173 2.10.10 Kyanite and Related Minerals .................................................................................................. 181 2.10.11 Limestone and Dolomite • D.O. Carr ....................................................................................... 185 2.10.12 Lithium Raw Materials ............................................................................................................. 194 2.10.13 Magnesite' O.M. Wicken .............. ................ .............. ..... .......................... ...... ............ ........... 198 2.10.14 Manganese .............................................................................................................................. 201 2.10.15 Mica ......................................................................................................................................... 204 2.10.16 Natural Abrasives. .............. .......... ...... ........... ..... ........ ..... ...... ......................... ...... ........ ..... ...... 209 2.10.17 Nepheline Syenite ................. ........ ........... ........... ..... ..... ..... ..... .... ..... ..................... ..... ..... ........ 214 2.10.18 Olivine ...................................................................................................................................... 218 2.10.19 Perlite' F.L. Kadey, Jr. ............................................................................................................ 221 2.10.20 Phosphate Rock· MF. Dibble ................................................................................................ 224 2.10.21 Pyrophyllite .............................................................................................................................. 230 2.10.22 Quartz/Silica Sand· MJ. Zdunczyk ........................................................................................ 235 2.10.23 Sand and Gravel· H.B. Goldman.. ............... ...... ..... ............. ...... ............................................. 237 2.10.24 Talc' R.H. Olson ..................................................................................................................... 242 2.10.25 Titanium ................................................................................................................................... 246 2.10.26 Vermiculite ....................... ............. ..... ................ ..... ...... ........ ..... ..... ..... ............................... ..... 260 2.10.27 Wollastonite' G. Parkison ..... ............. ...... ........................... ........................... ...... ................... 262 2.10.28 Zeolites' R.H. Olson .... ............... ...... ............ ..................................... ...... .................. ............. 266 2.10.29 Zirconium/Hafnium ......... ............ ...... ................ ..... ........ .......... .......... ...... ......................... ...... 268 2.11 Acquisition and Exercise of Rights to Use Land in Connection with Surface Mining Operations' C.J. Parr..................................... ............. ..................... .................... .... ........ 273 ix © 1990 by the Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration. All rights reserved. Electronic edition published 2009.

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Surface Mining 2nd Edition Edited By B.A. Kennedy SME Surface Mining 2nd Edition Edited By B.A. Kennedy Published by Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc. © 1990 by the Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration. All rights reserved. Electronic edition published 2009. Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc. (SME) 8307 Shaffer Parkway Littleton, Colorado, USA 80127 (303) 973-9550 / (800) 763-3132 www.smenet.org SME advances the worldwide mining and minerals community through information exchange and professional de- velopment.With members in more than 50 countries, SME is the world’s largest association of mining and minerals professionals. Copyright © 1990 Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc. Electronic edition published 2009. ISBN 978-0-87335-303-8 All Rights Reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Information contained in this work has been obtained by SME, Inc., from sources believed to be reliable. However, neither SME nor its authors guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information published herein, and neither SME nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or damages arising out of use of this information. This work is published with the understanding that SME and its authors are supplying information but are not at- tempting to render engineering or other professional services. If such services are required, the assistance of an ap- propriate professional should be sought. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Any statement or views presented here are those of the author and are not necessarily those of SME. The mention of trade names for commercial products does not imply the approval or endorsement of SME. © 1990 by the Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration. All rights reserved. Electronic edition published 2009. Preface The first reference text on surface mining was published by the American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers, Inc., in1968 and was appropri ately titled "Surface Mining." That volume was the product of the dedicated labors of Professor Eugene P. Pfleider, his 3 coordinating editors, and 89 authors. Now, 22 years later, the Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc. (formerly the SOCiety of Mining Engineers of AIM E) is publishing a completely new "Surface Mining" reference text. This book has involved a great deal of effort and perseverance by the authors, chapter editors, and coordinating editors. The intent of this revised edition was to completely rewrite, expand, and update the first edition to provide both a reference book for the working engineer and a textbook for the mining student. The book has taken far longer to prepare than the original ambitious plan and almost lost some of its authors, who had already written their contributions, when the Society had to shelve the project for two years due to financial constraints. The Society and the profession are deeply indebted to the authors and editors who contributed both their knowledge and an enormous amount of time to this project. In addition, a very special acknowledgment is due to Marianne Snedeker, formerly Manager of Publications and currently Manager of Book Publishing, and her staff who have kept the project on course and organized during its development. Special recognition is given the Seeley W. Mudd Memorial Fund Committee of AIME for financial support of the publication. We hope that this publication will prove useful to many minerals industry professionals worldwide. Dec. 8, 1989 Bruce A. Kennedy Jakarta, Indonesia Editor iii © 1990 by the Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration. All rights reserved. Electronic edition published 2009. Contributors Editor Bruce A. Kennedy Managing Director PT Pels art Management Services Jakarta, Indonesia Associate Editors Lee R. Rice Raj K. Singhal Lee R. Rice and Associates Energy Mines and Resources Canada Littleton, CO Devon, AB, Canada Editorial Board and Chapter Editors Richard A. Bideaux Guerdon E. Jackson Robert Laurich Consultant Management Consultant Principal Engineer Oro Valley, AZ Tucson, AZ Lithium Corp. of America Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Gastonia, NC Chapter 5 Richard L. Brown Thys B. Johnson Vice President Exploration Associate Director Donald O. Rausch Asarco Inc. Natural Resources Research Institute Retired New York, NY University of Minnesota Lakewood, CO Chapter 2 Duluth, MN Chapter 8 Chapter 6 Hugh W. Evans Lee W. Saperstein Consultant Bruce A. Kennedy Chairman Union Terminal Assn., National Assn. Managing Director Dept. of Mining Engineering of 10th Mountain Division PT Pelsart Management Services University of Kentucky Cincinnati, OH Jakarta, Indonesia Lexington, KY Chapter 6 Chapters 1 and 9 Robert F. Winkle Vice President Pincock, Allen & Holt, Inc. Tucson, AZ Chapter 7 Authors Aiken, George E. Socorro, NM Betzler, William F. Retired Chap. 2, Sec. 2.10.3 Retired Formerly with Kaiser Engineers, Inc. Minnesota Dept. of Revenue Oakland, CA Bauer, Alan* Buhl, MN Chap. 6, Sec. 6.3 Professor Chap. 3, Sec. 3.4.4 Dept. of Mining Engineering Armstrong, David Queens' University Bideaux, Richard A. Mintec, Inc. Kingston, ON, Canada Consultant Tucson, AZ Chap. 6, Secs. 6.1.2 and 6.2.1 Oro Valley, AZ Chap. 5, Sec. 5.1 Chap. 3, Sec. 3.1 Bentzen, Edwin H., III Ash, Richard L. Senior Processing Engineer Bolin, David S.* Retired Ore Sorters Inc. Pincock, Allen & Holt, Inc. Formerly Professor Lakewood, CO Lakewood, CO Dept. of Mining Engineering Chap. 2, Sec. 2.10 Chap. 3, Sec. 3.4.1 University of Missouri-Rolla Rolla, MO Berry, Charles W. Bohnet, Ernest L. Chap. 6, Sec. 6.2.2 Professor President Mining Engineering Dept. Pincock, Allen & Holt, Inc. Barker James M. University of Utah Lakewood, CO Industrial Minerals Geologist Salt Lake City, UT Chap. 5, Secs. 5. 4 and 5.6 New Mexico Bureau of Mines & Chap. 8, Sec. 8.2 Mineral Resources Bolles, John L. iv © 1990 by the Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration. All rights reserved. Electronic edition published 2009. CONTRIBUTORS v Retired Elliott City, MD Fletcher, David Silver City, NM Chap. 6, Sec. 6.6.2 Mineral Economics Dept. Chap. 9, Sec. 9.4 Colorado School of Mines Cole, Clifford F. Golden, CO Borquez, Guillermo V. Senior Project Manager Chap. 8, Sec. 8.2 Bechtel, Inc. TRC Environmental Consultants, Inc. San Francisco, CA Englewood, CO Gilliss, Archie M. Chap. 4, Sec. 4.2 Chap. 6, Sec. 6.7.2 Falkirk Mining Co. North American Coal Corp. Boyd. James W. Crosby, William A. Bismarck, NO President President Chap. 6, Sec. 6.12.4 John T. Boyd Co. Mining Resource Engineering Ltd. Pittsburgh, PA Kingston, ON, Canada Goldman, Harold B. Chap. 3, Sec. 3.4.3 Chap. 6, Secs. 6.1.2 and 6.2.1 Geological Consultants, Inc. San Francisco, CA Brazda, Lois L. Dibble, M.F. Chap. 2, Sec. 2.10.23 Amoco Corp. Consulting Engineer Chicago,IL Lakeland, FL Goodner, William R. Chap. 4, Sec. 4.3 Chap. 2, Sec. 2.10.20 Stearns Catalytic Denver, CO Breeding, William H. Donoso, Enrique Morel Chap. 6, Sec. 6.5.4 W.H. Breeding & ASSOCiates, Inc. President Summit, NJ Chuquicamata Div. Goodrich, R.F. Chap. 2, Sec. 2.7 CODELCO-Chile Reclamation Engineer Santiago, Chile IMC Fertilizer, Inc. Brobst, Donald A. Chap. 9, Sec. 9.6 Bartow,FL Consulting Geologist Chap. 6, Sec. 6.6.4 Reston, VA Dorling, J.P. Chap. 2, Sec. 2.10.2 Morrison-Knudsen Engineers, Inc Grandt, Alten F. Boise, 10 Director of Reclamation Brown, Richard L. Chap. 2, Sec. 2.9 Peabody Coal Co. Vice President Exploration St. Louis, MO Asarco. Inc. Duncan, Larry D. Chap. 6, Sec. 6.6.7 New York, NY Stearns Catalytic Chap. 2, Sec. 2.1 Denver, CO Grundstedt, Steven R. Chap. 6, Sec. 6.5.3 Mining Analyst Burns, Charles L. Morgan, Paul & Co. Vice President Dupree, Annette C. Sydney, NSW, Australia Government Relations North Quincy, MA Chap. 8, Sec. 8.6 Phelps Dodge Corp. Chap. 8, Sec. 8.4 Washington, DC Gunnett, John W. Chap. 8, Sec. 8.9 Elayer, R.W. Skelly and Loy Manager-Geology Harrisburg, PA Call, Richard D. Morrison-Knudsen Engineers, Inc. Chap. 6, Sec. 6.3 President Boise, 10 Call and Nicholas Inc. Chap. 2, Sec. 2.9 Hardie, Byron S. Tucson, AZ Geological Consultant Chap. 6, Sec. 6.8 Elbrond, Jorgen Tucson, AZ Professor Chap. 2, Sec. 2.3 Canton, Perry A. Dept. of Mineral Engineering Minnesota Dept. of Natural Resources Ecole Poly technique Hartman, Howard L. S1. Paul, MN Montreal, PQ, Canada Retired Chap. 3, Sec. 3.4.4 Chap. 6, Sec. 6.5.9 University of Alabama Consultant Carr, Donald D. Files, Thomas I. Carmichael, CA Branch Head Project Manager Chap. 6, Sec. 6.1.1 Mineral Resources & Data Marion Div., Dresser Industries Inc. Management Marion,OH Hays, Ronald M. Indiana Geological Survey Chap. 6, Sec. 6.4 Mining and Metallurgical Consultant Bloomington, IN Ronald M. Hays and Associates Chap. 2, Sec. 2.10.11 Fitch, David C. Edina, MN Manager, Southwest Exploration Chap. 3, Sec. 3.4.4 Clar, Michael L. Hecla Mining Co. Chap. 6, Secs. 6.5.2, 6.5.5, 6.5.6 Secretary-Treasurer Reno, NV 6.5.7 Engineering Technologies Chap. 2, Sec. 2.4 © 1990 by the Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration. All rights reserved. Electronic edition published 2009. vi SURFACE MINING Hemenway, David S. Mining Engineering Dept. Homestake Mining Co. Senior Counsel Colorado School of Mines Lead, SO Peabody Holding Co., Inc. Golden, CO Chap. 9, Sec. 9.4 St. Louis, MO Chap. 6, Sec. 6.12.3 Chap. 8, Sec. 8.7 Lowell, J. David Kadey, Frederic L., Jr. Geological Consultant Hennessy, J. Allen Retired Lowell Mineral Exploration Principal Mining Geologist Lantana, FL Nogales, AZ Mining & Metals Div. Chap. 2, Secs. 2.10.6, 2.10.19 Chap. 2, Sec. 2.2 Bechtel Civil & Minerals, Inc. San Francisco, CA Kahle, Michael B. Madson, James L. Chap. 2, Sec. 2.8 Director of Marketing Manager, Morenci Branch Phillips Coal Co. Phelps Dodge Corp. Henning, Dieter Richardson, TX Morenci, AZ Reinbraun-Consulting GmbH Chap. 6, Sec. 6.14 Chap. 9, Sec. 9.4 Rheinbraun K61n, Germany Chap. 9, Sec. 9.2 Kennedy, Bruce A. Malouf, E.E. Managing Director Consultant Heyborne, L.S. PT Pelsart Management Services Salt Lake City, UT Manager Jakarta, Indonesia Chap. 6, Sec. 6.9.1 Mining Operations Chap. 9, Sec. 9.1 Mine and Plant Operations Group Marsden, Ralph W.* Bechtel Civil & Minerals Inc. Kerch, Richard L. Professor Emeritus San Francisco, CA Consolidation Coal Co. Dept. of Geology Chap. 8, Sec. 8.5 Pittsburgh, PA University of Minnesota Chap. 6, Sec. 6.7.2 Duluth, MN Hoffman, Clarence W. Chap. 2, Sec. 2.5 Performance Associates, Inc. Knudsen, Harvey P. Danville, CA Associate Professor Marshall, Darryl A. Chap. 6, Sec. 6.11.2 Mining Engineering Dept. Fluor Daniel Montana College of Mineral Science & Redwood City, CA Hoyle, Daniel Rodriguez Technology Chap. 8, Sec. 8.6 Mineral Industry Consultant Butte, MT Formerly Vice President Chap. 3, Sec. 3.2 Mathieson, Graham Southern Peru Copper Corp. General Manager Lima, Peru Kunze, Lutz Griffin Coal Mining Co., Ltd. Chap. 9, Sec. 9.5 Vice President Perth, WA, Australia Smith-Emery Co. Chap. 3, Sec. 3.3 Huber, Douglas W. Los Angeles, CA Mining Adviser Chap. 5, Sec. 5.6 McCarter, M.K. USAID/ISLAMABAD Agency for Inter- Professor national Development Leroy, A.J. Mining Engineering Dept. US Dept. of State Palabora Mining Co., Ltd. University of Utah Washington, DC Phalaborwa, Rep. of South Africa Salt Lake City, UT Chap. 6, Sec. 6.12.1 Chap. 9, Sec. 9.3 Chap. 6, Sec. 6.9.2 Humphrey, James D. Levitt, Brian J. Mclndoo, Robert N. Chief Engineer - Marketing Develop- Materials Handling Engineer Babbitt, MN ment Stearns Catalytic Chap. 6, Sec. 6.11.1 Marion Div., Dresser Industries, Inc. Denver, CO Marion,OH Chap. 6, Sec. 6.5.3 McKee, Guy W. Chap. 6, Sec. 6.4 Professor of Agronomy Li, Ta M. The Pennsylvania State University Hutnik, Russell J. Chief Operating Officer University Park, PA Professor of Forest Ecology Pincock, Allen & Holt, Inc. Chap. 6, Sec. 6.6.6 The Pennsylvania State University Lakewood, CO University Park, PA Chap. 1, Sec. 1.2 McKereghan, G.F. Chap. 6, Sec. 6.6.6 International Minerals & Chemical Co. LiII, John W. Bartow, FL Jackson, Guerdon E. American Barrick Resources Corp. Chap. 6, Sec. 6.6.4 Mining Consultant Toronto, ON, Canada Tucson, AZ Chap. 9, Sec. 9.3 McKie, P.W. Chap. 4, Sec. 4.1 Director Loving, Gary A. Mine & Excavated Structures Design Johnson, Wesley G. General Manager Morrison-Knudsen Engineers, Inc. © 1990 by the Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration. All rights reserved. Electronic edition published 2009. CONTRIBUTORS vii Boise,ID Procurement Services Associates Chief Geological Engineer Chap. 2, Sec. 2.9 Stockton, CA Inspiration Consolidated Copper Co. Chap. 8, Sec. 8.8 Claypool, AZ Meek, FA, Jr. Chap. 6, Sec. 6.8 Upshur Mine Complex Pratt, Morton E. Enoxy Coal Inc. Retired Snedeker, Marianne Buckhannon, WV Formerly Executive Engineer Manager of Book Publishing Chap. 6, Sec. 6.7.1 Utah International Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Moraga, CA Exploration, Inc. Misagi, Leo Chap. 9, Sec. 9.8 Littleton, CO Head Chap. 1, Secs. 1.1 and 1.2 MSHA Academy Presley. Gordon C. US Dept. of Labor Consultant Sullivan, Ruth Beckley, WV Englewood. CO Enoxy Coal, Inc. Chap. 6, Sec. 6.12.2 Chap. 2, Sec. 2.10 Cincinnati. OH Chap. 7, Sec. 7.2.2 Morey, Philip G. Ramani, Raja V. President Professor and Head Sweigard. Richard J. Jval, Inc. Mineral Engineering Dept. Assistant Professor Redwood City, CA The Pennsylvania State University Mining Engineering Dept. Chap. 5, Sec. 5.7 University Park, PA University of Kentucky Chap. 6, Secs. 6.5.1, 6.5.8. 6.6.2 Lexington, KY Morris, Jerald S. Chap. 6, Sec. 6.6.2 Vice President, Operations Rausch, Donald O. Central Stone Co. Retired Thomas, Stephen W. Hannibal, MO Lakewood, CO Manager, Acquisitions and Develop Chap. 8, Sec. 8.6 Chap. 8, Sec. 8.1 ment Cyprus Gold Co. Mortensen, Dennis K. Reed, Ronald G. Englewood, CO Vice President, General Manager Pincock, Allen & Holt, Inc. Chap. 3, Sec. 3.4.5 Cyprus Miami Mining Corp. Lakewood, CO Claypool, AZ Chap. 5, Sec. 5.5 Thompson, James V. Chap. 6, Sec. 6.10 Consultant Rendu, Jean-Michel Lafayette, CA Olson, Richard H. Newmont Gold Co. Chap. 4, Sec. 4.2 President Denver, CO Industrial Minerals Evaluations, Inc. Chap. 3, Sec. 3.3 Thornburg, H. Andrew Golden CO Vice Chairman Chap. 2, Secs. 2.10, 2.10.24, 2.10.28 Ritchie, M.1. Security Pacific Capital Markets Group Pathfinder Mines Corp. Los Angeles, CA Parker, Harry M. San Francisco, CA Chap. 4, Sec. 4.3 Vice President Chap. 9, Sec. 9.7 Mineral Resource Development, Inc. Ulatowski, Tomek San Mateo, CA Rogowski, A.S. Senior Vice President Chap. 3, Sec. 3.4.2 Soil Scientist Crocker National Bank US Dept. of Agriculture San Francisco, CA Parkison, Gary Agricultural Research Service/North Chap. 4, Sec. 4.4 Westmont Mining Inc. Atlantic Area Tucson, AZ University Park, PA Vickers, Edward Chap. 2, Sec. 2.10.27 Chap. 6, Sec. 6.6.5 Kailua Kona, HI Chap. 4, Sec. 4.4 Parr, Clayton J. Saperstein, Lee W. Kimball, Parr, Crockett & Waddoups Chairman Voige, Raymond C. Salt Lake City, UT Dept. of Mining Engineering Mine Safety Appliances Co. Chap. 2, Sec. 2.11 University of Kentucky Pittsburgh, PA Lexington, KY Chap. 6, Sec. 6.13 Phelps, L.B. Chap. 6 .• Sec. 6.6.1 Assistant Professor, Mining Waleski, William E. Engineering Sargent, Fred B. Belle Ayre Mine, Western Div. The Pennsylvania State University Vice President, Sales & Marketing Amax Coal Co. University Park, PA Marion Div., Dresser Industries. Inc. Gillette, WY Chap. 6, Sec. 6.6.3 Marion,OH Chap. 7, Sec. 7.2.4 Chap. 6, Sec. 6.4 Plute, Daniel P. Waples, Bee R., Jr.* President Savely, James P. Vice President © 1990 by the Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration. All rights reserved. Electronic edition published 2009. viii SURFACE MINING Mineral Div. California University of Pennsylvania Woodring, Kenneth Kaiser Engineers, Inc. California, PA President Oakland, CO Chap. 6, Sec. 6.6.5 Hobet Mining Co. Chap. 4, Sec. 4.1 Madison, WV Weise, Hans Chap. 7, Sec. 7.2.2 Ward, Willard E., II Reinbraun-Consulting GmbH Geologist Reinbraun Koln, Germany Yu, A.T. Energy Resources Div. Chap. 9, Sec. 9.2 Retired Geological Survey of Alabama Formerly President Tuscaloosa, AL Wendt, Clancy J. ORBA Corp. Chap. 2, Sec. 2.6 District Manager Clearwater, FL Westmont Mining, Inc. Chap. 6, Sec. 6.10 Ward, Milton H. Sparks, NV President and Chief Operating Officer Chap. 3, Sec. 3.4.5 Zdunczyk, Mark J. Freeport McMoran Senior Geologist New Orleans, LA Whittle, Jeff Dunn Geoscience Corp. Chap. 8, Sec. 8.3 Director Albany, NY Whittle Programming Pty. Ud. Chap. 2, Sec. 2.10.22 Weber, Kenneth J. North Balwyn, Vic., Australia Consultant Chap. 5, Sec. 5.3 Zimmer, G.S. Iron Mountain, MI President Chap. 7, Sec. 7.2 Wicken, Oscar M. GSZ Inc. SRM Associates Tucson, AZ Weinrich, B.E. West Palm Beach, FL Chap. 7, Sec. 7.2.5 Assistant Professor of Mathematics Chap. 2, Sec. 2.10.13 *D eceased © 1990 by the Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration. All rights reserved. Electronic edition published 2009. Table of Contents Preface • Bruce A. Kennedy..... ..... ......... ...... ..... ..... ..... ....... ....... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ............ ....... ..... ...... ..... ..... ... iii Contributors. .. ...................................................................................... ............................... .............. .... ..... ... iv Chapter 1. Introduction 1.1 History of Mining' M. Snedeker .............................................................................................. 1 1.2 Current and Future Trends • T.M Li, M. Snedeker ............................................................... .. 8 Chapter 2. Exploration and Geology Techniques 2.1 Overview of Exploration· R.L. Brown .............. .................. ..................... ........... ...... ............... 15 2.2 Base Metal Exploration and Geology • J.D. Lowell ................................................................. 22 2.3 Precious Metals Exploration and Geology' B.S. Hardie ......................................................... 28 2.4 Uranium Exploration and Geology' D.C. Fitch ....................................................................... 35 2.5 Iron Ore Exploration and Geology· R. W. Marsden ................................................................. 48 2.6 Coal· W. E. Ward, " .. .......... ...... ....... ........... ...... ...... ............ ...... ...... ........... ..... .... ............ ........ 65 2.7 Placer· W.H. Breeding............................................................................................................ 77 2.8 Tar Sands Exploration and Geology' J.A. Hennessy................... .......... ............... ................. 86 2.9 Oil Shale Exploration and Geology· R. W. Elayer, I.P. Dorfing, F. W. McKie ........................... 91 2.10 Industrial Minerals, R.H. Olson, E.H. Bentzen, III, G.C. Presley ............................................ 105 2.10.1 Asbestos .................................................................................................................................. 105 2.10.2 Barium and Strontium Minerals' D.A. Brobst.. .................................... ............. ..... ................. 116 2.10.3 Borate Exploration J.M Barker................. ......... ........... ............... ............................................ 120 2.10.4 Chromite .................................................................................................................................. 126 2.10.5 Clays ........................................................................................................................................ 131 2.10.6 Diatomite· F.L. Kadey, Jr. ....................................................................................................... 153 2.10.7 Feldspar ................................................................................................................................... 159 2.10.8 Fluorspar ........ ...... ............ ................. ........ ...... ................ .......... ............. ................................. 163 2.10.9 Gypsum and Anhydrite ............................................................................................................ 173 2.10.10 Kyanite and Related Minerals .................................................................................................. 181 2.10.11 Limestone and Dolomite • D.O. Carr ....................................................................................... 185 2.10.12 Lithium Raw Materials ............................................................................................................. 194 2.10.13 Magnesite' O.M. Wicken .............. ................ .............. ..... .......................... ...... ............ ........... 198 2.10.14 Manganese .............................................................................................................................. 201 2.10.15 Mica ......................................................................................................................................... 204 2.10.16 Natural Abrasives. .............. .......... ...... ........... ..... ........ ..... ...... ......................... ...... ........ ..... ...... 209 2.10.17 Nepheline Syenite ................. ........ ........... ........... ..... ..... ..... ..... .... ..... ..................... ..... ..... ........ 214 2.10.18 Olivine ...................................................................................................................................... 218 2.10.19 Perlite' F.L. Kadey, Jr. ............................................................................................................ 221 2.10.20 Phosphate Rock· MF. Dibble ................................................................................................ 224 2.10.21 Pyrophyllite .............................................................................................................................. 230 2.10.22 Quartz/Silica Sand· MJ. Zdunczyk ........................................................................................ 235 2.10.23 Sand and Gravel· H.B. Goldman.. ............... ...... ..... ............. ...... ............................................. 237 2.10.24 Talc' R.H. Olson ..................................................................................................................... 242 2.10.25 Titanium ................................................................................................................................... 246 2.10.26 Vermiculite ....................... ............. ..... ................ ..... ...... ........ ..... ..... ..... ............................... ..... 260 2.10.27 Wollastonite' G. Parkison ..... ............. ...... ........................... ........................... ...... ................... 262 2.10.28 Zeolites' R.H. Olson .... ............... ...... ............ ..................................... ...... .................. ............. 266 2.10.29 Zirconium/Hafnium ......... ............ ...... ................ ..... ........ .......... .......... ...... ......................... ...... 268 2.11 Acquisition and Exercise of Rights to Use Land in Connection with Surface Mining Operations' C.J. Parr..................................... ............. ..................... .................... .... ........ 273 ix © 1990 by the Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration. All rights reserved. Electronic edition published 2009.

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