Summa Theologiae: Volume 26, Original Sin: 1a2ae. 81-85

102 Pages·1990·7.507 MB·English

by  Thomas Aquinas, T. C. O'Brien

'· iL' _ l j!j'',i� .- � 1'1Y
ST THOMASA QUINAS
SUMMA
THEOLOGI&
Latitne xatn dE nglitrsahn slation,
IntroductiNoontse,As p,p endices
andG lossaries
CII'iY WilWOlli'iY VI''IO:>nJ.IO
fOVNNIS clVfi1:1
dd 0XXIII dd0 AI
aI:>VJ.QW W:>W'IXllI
HIS HOLINESSP OPEP AUL VI AT THIS AUDIENCE
WASP LEASEtDo gr anta na udienocn1e ,3D ecemb1e9r6 3, THEH OLYF ATHERm adea co rdiaalll ocuitnwi hoinc hhe fi rswte lcomed
toa groupr,e presenttihneDg o minican Ediatnodtr hse ther epresentoafat p irvoejsecti nw hichhe fo und particularH ei nterest.
combinPeudb lisohfet rhsen ewt ransloaftt ihoeSn umma wenotn t ol autdh ep erennial voafSl tTu eh omasd'osc triansee m bodying
Theol<1o1ogf iS tT homasl,e db yH isE minenMciec hael univetrrustahlis ns oco genatfa shioTnh.i dso ctrinhee,s aiidsa,tr easure
Cardinal Borfto hweOn re,d eorfP reachaenrdst ,h eM ost belnogingn oto nltyot heD ominican bOurtd thetero w holCeh urcanhd,
RevereFnadt hAniecre toF ernandMeazs,t eGre neroaftl h e indeteodt hew holweo rldi;tis notm erelmye dievbaultv alifodr a ll
samOer der. timesn,o lte aosfta lfolr o uro wn.
HisH olintehsesr efocroem mendtehdee nterporfDi osmei nicafrnosm
English-spPeraokviinnogcf te hse O rdearn do ft hefriire ndtsh;e wye re
undertaak diinffigc utlats lke,s bse causteh et hougohftS tT homaiss
complicaotrhe idls a ngusaugbet tlhea,bn e cause the hcitlsha oruigthyt of
and exactneosfls a nguaigsse o d ifficultto tr anslaYteett. h es uccessful
outcoomfet heierff orwtosu ludn doubtecdolnytr ibtuott eh er eligious
and cultuwrealll -boefit nhgeE nglish-spweoarklidn.g
Whatga vehim greats atisfacwtaisto hnen otabelvei deonfci en terest
int hse preoafdd ivitrnuet ohn t hpea rotft heem inelnatym enc oncerned,
memberosfd ifefrencto mmuniyoenutsn itienda c ommovne nture.
Fort hesree asotnhseH olyF athewri sheidta lslu cceasnsdw, a rmly
encouraagnedbd l essaeltdlh oseen gageHde. w ash apptyo r eceitvhee
firstv olumper esentetdohim asa g estuorfhe o magaen,d p romistehda t
hew oulfodl lowwi tihn tertehsept r ogroefst sh ew orakn dl oofokr ward
tot her egulaaprp earaonfac lel stuhbes equveonltu mes.
vi vii
�
VOLUMES
PRIMA PARS
I Theolo{gyI aI.)
2 ExisteanncdNe a turoefGo d {Ia2.- 11)
3 Knowinagn dN aminGgo d( Ia1.2 -I3)
4 KnowledgienG od( IaI.4 -I8)
s TheW ilaln dP oweorf G od( IaI.!} -26)
6 TheT rini(tyI a2.7 -32)
7 FatheSro,na ,n dH olyGh os(tI a3.3 -43)
8 Creati(oIna 4.4 --9)
9 Ange(lIsa 5.o- 64)
IO Cosmogo(nIya6 .5 -74)
11 Man (Ia7.5 -83)
I2 Human Intelli(gIean8.c4 e--9 )
I3 Man Madet oG od's Im(aug9.e0 -Io2)
I4 DiviGnoev ernm ent(I aI.0 3--9)
IS TheW orlOdr der( Ia1.1 0-I9)
PRIMA SECUND£
I6 EndH appiness I(-SI)8 2re,
I7 Human Act{sI 826a:-.I 7)
I8 PrincipolfMe osr al(iIt8y2 Ia:8.- 2I)
I9 Lovea ndD esire (2I2ll-23a:0.)
20 Pleasu(rIea2 a:3.I --9)
2I Feara ndA nge(rI 82a:4.0 -8)
22 DisposifotriH ounmsa nA ct(sI 824Z9.- 54)
23 Virtu{eIsa zz. 55-67)
24 Giftansd Beatitud(esI 82Z6.8 -70)
25 Sin( Ill27Z1.- So)
26 OriginSailn( Ia28a:I.- 5)
27 Effectosf S in( I828Z6-.-9 )
28 Law( Ia29Z0-.7 )
29 TheO ldL aw( Ia29z8.- Io5)
30 TheG ospeolfG rac(eI ll2lZ0.6- I4)
SECUN DA SECUND£
3I Faith (12-a27Z).
32 ConsequeonfcF easi th (2a2z. 8-I6)
33 Hope( 2a2Iz7.- 22)
34 Chari(t2ya2 Z2.3 -33)
ix
Li.
35 ConsequoefCn hcaers(i 2t12ya:3 .4 -46)
36 Prude(n2c1e24 a:7.- 56) GENERALP REFACE
37 Just(i2c1e25 a:7.- 62)
38 Injus(t2i1c26ea:3 .- 79)
BYO FFICIAAPLP OIMNETNTT HES UMMAP ROVIDTEHSEF RAMEWOKR
39 ReligainWodon r sh(i2p1 28a:()-9.1 ) forC athsotluidcii nse yss tetmhaetoilacon gyfod r a c lasCshircails tian
40 ConsequoefRn eclesi (gi2o8n2 9z2.- 100) philosYoetpthh weyo .r wkh,i icmsho rthane at ext-fobrpo rookf essional
41 ThSeoci al Vi(r2t1u21esa:0 .1 -22)
training, isa lstohw ei tnesosfd evelotrpaidnigtian odn t hseo urocfe
42 Cour(a2g8e2 1z2.3 -40) livinsgci enacbeo duitv tihnien Fgosfr.a isteheku sn derstiantn hdei ng
43 Temper(a2n12cz1e.4 1-54)
contemploafGt oidoL'nos g ohiss w,i sdaonmsd a vipnrogv idreunnc­e,
44 ParotfTs e mper(an2c1e21 a:5.5 -JO) nintgh rotuhgwehh oulnei verse.
45 MysticainsMdmi ra(c2l12ea:1 .7 1-8) Thep urptohseeon,ft, h ediisti oinns o nta rrocwlleyrb iucattlos , h are
46 ActiavniCdto yn temp(l2aati21oa:7n.9 -84) witalhlC hrisatitr aenass wuhryi cis hp arto ft heciorm mohne ritage.
47 TheP astaonrRdae ll igiLoiuv(se2 s8 21a:8.5 -9) Moreovietcor n,s utlhtiesn teorfesmt ansyw how ounlodct l atiobm e
belieavneydre astp, p retchiiean tteegr wihtiytc ahk reesl iiginothnoa rd
TERTIAP ARS
thinking.
48 TheI ncarnatWeo r(d3 a1.- 6) Accorditnhgeeld yi tors ihnam vien d ketphteo ft nhgeeee dnse ral
49 TheG raocfCe h r(i3sa7t.- I5) readwehrocan resptoont dh ree asionnC sh ristiaasnw ietlaylso, f
50 TheO neM edi(a3tao1.r6 -26) techntihcaelo loagnipdah nisl osophers.
51 OurL ad(y3 2a7.- 30) PutttihnLega ttienax lto ngtshEiend gel iipssa hor tft hpeu rpTohsee .
52 TheC hildohfoC ohdr( i3sa3t.1 -7) readweirta hs mattoefrL iantcangi nb er easswuhretenhd tre a nslator,
53 TheL ifoefC hr(i3sat. 38-45) ino rdteobr e c leaanrrd e adarbelnedt,eh rtesh ouogfSh ttT homianst o
54 TheP assoifCo hnr (i3s4ta6 .- 52) thfree edoofam n otihdeirwo imt hcoiurtc umloorpc aurtaipohnr ase.
55 ThRee surr(e3ca5t.3i -o9n) Thearert ew moo rree asfoornt shi en cluosfti hoLena ttienxF ti.r st,
56 TheS acrame(n3t6oas-. 5 ) toh eltphe ed ittohresm sefolrtv heaesu ,t htohro'usig tsho tlo i stsoob me
57 BaptiasnmCd o nfirmation( 36a6.- 72) uniforamnlfladyt ltyr ansliitrtei rnwagitstae hnd a;l oagniidet pssr, e cision
58 ThEeu charPirsetsie(cn3 7ca3e.- 8) cannobter edutcoea td a bolfte e rAm sr.i gciodn sishtaneson btce ye n
59 ThEeu cha(r3ia7s.9t - 83) impoosnetd h eed itooftr hsde i fferveonltu ammeosn tgh emsetlhvee s;
6o Penance8(43-a9.0 origiingsai lv aenntd,h set udceanjntu dfogreh imself.
Nexttoh, e ltph owsheo nsaet ive insto oEtnn gguleoi rws hho dsuet iyt
itsos tutdhye oilnLo agyto ifwn h,o mma nayr cael lteotd e aacnhpd r each
throtuhgmehe dioufmt hmeo swti desplraenagduo aftg hweeo rlndo,w
becomtihnsege colnadn guoaftg hee Church.
TheL atiisans ounwdo rking texpta,r agrsaepalhnepedcud tn,ec d­,
tuatbeytd h ree sponesdiibtIlomerp .o rtant ivnma arniuasticornisp,t s
ansdu cmha jporri netdeidt aisto hnPesi aannaLd e onianrieen, d icated.
ThEen glciosrhr esppoanrdasg brypa aprha garnaadpl hm oasltw asyesn ­
tenbcyse e nteEnaceco.hft hsei xty vsoofl auarmsi e psso ,s siwbiblleel ,
complienit test eoslf, e ravsaet efoxrta s peccoiuarlos refo rp rivsattued y.
THOMASG ILBOY. P,
T. CO'.B RIEON. P.
x xi
'I ) , •
·-�<I:i:., ·�;"_ .. > -' �. ( .. '; ,,,' ...
Ll A '{U '
STT HOMAASQ UINAS
SUMMA THEOLOGI.lB
VOLUME 26
ORIGINALS IN
(Ia.283:1.- 85)
Latin texEntg.l istrha nslatiIonntr,od uction,
NoteAsp,p endice&s G lossary
T. C.O 'BRIEN O.P.
CAMBRIDGEU NIVERSITPYR ESS
CambridNgeew,Y orkM,e lbournMea,d riCda,p eT ownS,i ngapoSrileoP, a ulo
CONTENTS
CambridUgnei versPirteys s
TheE dinburBguhi ldiCnagm,b ridCgBe2 2 RU,U K
xi General Preface
Publisihnet dh eU nited SotfaA tmeesr icbayC ambridUgnei versity PrYeosrsk, New
xvii EditorNioalt es
www.cambridge.org xix Introduction
Informatoinot nh itsi twlwew:. cambridge.org/9780521393737
2 Prologue
11::1T heD ominicCaonu ncaislT rustfoeret heE ngliPsrho vinocfte h eOr deorf P reach1e9r6s5
[ExceptLiantgit ne xotf' DEC AU SAP ECCATEIX PARTEH OMINISE TD E Questi8o1n. O RIGINASLI N'TSR ANSMISOSNI
CORRUPTIONBEO NIN ATUR£']
4 Article l. whetheorr n otm an'fisr st psaisns beysw ayo fo rigin
top osterity
Thipsu blicaitsii noc no pyriSguhbtj.e tcost t atuteoxrcye ption
andt ot hper ovisioofrn esl evcaonltl ecltiicveen sing agreements, 12 Artic2l.e whethoerrn otev eno thesri nosf t hefi rspta reonrt
nor eproducotfai noynp armta yt akpel acwei thout later parpeanstss oeandrt eop osterity
thew rittpeenr missoifCo anm bridUgnei versPirteys s.
16 Article 3. whethero rn ott hes ino ft hefi rspta renpta ssbeys
wayo fo rigtioaln l
Thidsi gitparlilnyt fierdsp ta perbvaecrks i2o0n0 6
20 Artic4l.e w hethero rn otw eres omebotdyob em iraculously
A catalroegcfuooertr dh p iusb liciast iaovnfa riotlmhaB ebr liLeti ibsrha ry fashioonuetdo fh uman fleshh,e woulcdo ntract
originsailn
ISBN-1937 8-0-521-39h3a7r3d-b7a ck
� s::-�": � 22 Articl5e. whethehra,dA dam nots innebdu,tE veal onet,h eir
I� �= �""3 ·6�- �er-l
children woucolndtr ahcatvoeerd i ginal sin
ISBljH3 . 78 -�0�S�.� .�3Ui��--�p�p rb!�k/l
ISpN40 M21-02934p•apletrblt cki QUESTION8 2. ORIGINASLI N AS ITTOSE SSENCE
I
28 Articll.e whethoerrn oto rigisniainls a h abit
32 Arti2c.l ew hethoerrn ott heraer em any 'originals inisn'o ne
''\• ?� , /�:.·-' i""'· . ' individual
17916 36 Artic3l.e whethoerrn oto riginal siins c oncupiscence
I
•·•·-r· •····-.,-.· -··-�"•"•,"_ _,.__,-J 40 Artic4l. ew hethoerrn oto rigisniainls e quallyi na ll
QUESTION8 3. ORIGINASLI NA ST O ITSSU BJECT
44 Articlel . whetheorr n oto riginal siins r atheirn th e fletshhan
int hes oul
50 Artic2l.e whetheorr igisnianisl int hes ubstanocfet hes oul
raththane r ini tpso wers
54 Articl3e. whethoerrn oto riginsailan ff ectthse wmiolrlet han
theo thepro wers
xv
56 Artic4l.e w hethoerrn otcertain powerso fs oul,n amelyt he
EDITORIALN OTES
reproductpiovwee rt,h ec oncupisacipbpleeti atned
thes ensoeft oucahr,ee speciailnlfye cted
QUESITON8 4.S INA S THEC AUSEO F SIN THET EXTA NDT RANSLATION
60 Arti1cl.e w hethoerrn otc ovetousinstes hsre oootfa lsli ns
THEL AT INt exrte licehsi eoflnyt he' Leoniendei't icoonm,m issiboyn ed
64 Arti2cl.e whethoerrn otp ridei st hbee ginningo fa lslin
LeoX III towtahreed nsdo ft hel ascte ntuArnyy.v ariafrtoimothis n has
68 Arti3c.l ew hethoerrn otan y speciasli nbse sidpesr idaned been carefullyfr ocmh aolsteenrn arteiaved ifonugnsd i nm anuscroirp ts
avaricseh oubledt ermecda pi.tal earlieerd itioannsd,d ulnyo teTdh.e a ttemhpatsn otb eetno e stabal ish
72 Article 4. whethoerrn ott heses evecanp itals inarse suitably crititceaxlbt u,tt oo ffears ounwdo rkivnegr sitohnce;h oiocfve a riahnatss
listed beedni ctabtyet dh epirro ximtioSt tyT homasg'esn eruasla gaen dt ot he
thougohftt h ee nticroen teTxhte.p unctuaitsti hoanot ft hee ditor.
'
QUESTOIN 85S INS DAMAGET O THEG OODO F NATURE TheE nglishha sb eepnr eparwietdah v ietwo b einrge aidn dependently
78 ArticIl.e whethoerrn ots idiminins hes the goodo fn ature oft hLea titnh,o urgehf eretnotc heih sa sb eemna dee asTye.c hnitcearlm s
arexep lainientd h neo teTsh.e t emptattioto rna nsblyacir tceu mlocution
84 Artic2l.e whethoerr n ott hwe holgeood ofn atureb ecantak en
ore xplanarteonrdye rhiansbg e evni gorosuusplpyr esWsheedr.te h eries
awayt hrousginh
noe xplanaotifao t ne rtmh er eadfienrd tso b et echnitcahlge, l osscana ry
88 Article3 . whethoerrn ott hew oundrses ultinfrgo m sina re generablerl eyl ioendfo ra ssistance.
appropridesacrtiebleyd a sf.D8akne s signor, ance, malice
andconcu piscence
FOOTNOTES
92 Article 4. whethero rn ott hel acokf p roportionsp,ec iaesn d
order ist hefef ect ofs in Thoses ignified bya superinourm bearr et her eferegnicveesbn y St
94 Arti5c.l ew hethoerrn otd eatha ndo ther bilolsdari el eyff ects Thomasw,i tthh eex ceptoifno on1. t oe acahr tiwchliec rhe fetrops a rallel
ofs in texitnsh iwsri tinTghso.s sei gnifiaeldp habetairceead liltyo rial references
ande xplanarteomrayr ks.
98 Arti6cle. whethoernrodteathandsimilarevilsarneaturatloman
Appendices APPENDICES
105 I. Attitutdoesw arOdr igiSnialn
Twos ortosf a ppendiacrpeers o vidTehdefir. s t1,- 6g,i vteh be ackground
110 2. HistoriOcuatll ine indispentsoat bhlese t uyd oft heS ummad evelopmoeftn hteq uestoifo n
II5 3. ThematiCco nspectus ofC atholic Teaching origisniannl,a meliyts st atiunts h te eachoifnt gh eC hurcihn,S cripture,
121 4. TheO ldT estament andi nt hhei stoorfty h eoloTghyes. e con7d-,<;a ,r dee sigansea dk inodf
commentatroey x plaSitnT homasp'rso ceduarnedts o s peolult t heir
124 5. TheN ewT estament
implications.
128 6. TheS umma andE arlTieera ching
133 7. SinC ausebdyO rigin
REFERENCES
144 8. Original Iu stice
Biblirceafle reanrcete ost heV ulgabtrea,ck etneudm bertsot heP salms
154 9. FallNeant ure
arteh osoefv ersiboansseo dn t hHee bretwe xPta.tr isrteifce reanrcteeo s
163 Glossary Migne (PG,G reeFka therPsL;,L atiFna therAsb)b.r eviattioSo tn s
171 Index Thomasw'osr kasr aes fo llows:
xvi 26-a xvii
SummTahe oglioawi,t hotiuttl Pea.r qtu,es tioanr,t ircelpel,ey .;gI .a 3., 2
INTRODUCTION
ad3 .I a2reI.7 6,. 2 a2re1.8 0I,O 3.a 3,5 8,.
SummCao ntGrean tCiGle.Bos o,kc ,h aptee.rgC;. G 1 ,2 8.
INT HEe ditionftg h ivso lumteh erhea sb eeanc hoiocfeco ntenitns order
ScprtiuimnI VL ibroSse ntentSiaetrn.uBo mo,kd ,i stincqtuieosnt,i on,
tob rinogu tt het heoloogfoy r iginsailna ,n dt hec hoirceeq uisroesm e
article, osrqo l�usttiionun rceuplleay.,;gI .IS Ien t2.5 ,2 ,3 ,ii a d3 .
explanatTihoinbs.e comecsl eafrro ma g lanactet heco ntexotfQ uestions
CompendTihuemgo ilaCo,omp endT.h eo/. 8I-w5i thSitnT homast'rse atOinsV ei caensSd i n(1sa 27re1.- 89w)h,i ch
CommentaroifSe csr ipt(ulerec teupxroas,oni est)iJ:ob I, nJ o;bP salms, isd eveloupnedde trh efo llowisnighx e adings:
InP sa;Il s.aiIahnI,a s ;.J eremiIanhJ,e em;r.L amentatIionTn hsr,e. n;
1.T hed efinitioonfv icaensd s in(s7 1);
StM atthewI,n M att;.S tJ ohnI,nJ ona.E;pi stolfeS stP aule,. gI.n
2.T heidirs tinctioonnefr oma noth(e7r2 );
RomC.h aptevre,r sleec,t aisro e quired.
3.T heicro mparitsooo nne a noth(e7r3 );
Philosopchoimcmaeln ta:rO inet shLei beCra usdisIe,nD ec auAsrisi.s totle: 4.T hes ubjeocfst i (n7 4);
PerHier meneIinPa esre,irm h;.P osterAinoarl ytIincPs o,s t;Pe hry.sics, 5.T heca useo fs i(n7 5-84);
InP hysci;.D eC aleotM undIon,D eC a;lD. eG enerateiotCn oerr up­ 6.T hee ffecotfs i(n8 5-9)·
tioInnDe e,g e.nM;e teoorgicoalI,n M ete;oD reA. nmiaI,n D ea nmia;
DeS enestSu e nsIant osD,e en; Ds euM emoreitRa e misicnteianI,n D e Insteoafcd o rrespotnodo inneog r m oreo ft heshee adintghsiv,so lume
memor.; MetaphysIincM se,at ;.N icomachEetahni cIsnE, tch.iP,ol i­ containsse verQaule stifroonms u ndetrh efi ftahn do nefr om undetrh e
ticIsn,P olBo.o kc,h aptleecr,ta isro e quiraeldsfo,or E xpositioonn s sixatnhd l asTth.i csh oiacpep eafolrsj ustificsaitimopntl oyt hep romin­
BoethiLuisb,de e Hreb domadanidLb iubsde eTr r niitIantD eeh, e badn.d encoer iginsailnm usth avfoer anyC hristtihaeno logbieacanu soef i ts
InD eT r.ia,nn do nD ionysiDueDs ,i visiN nominibuIsnD, e dniovm.. bearibnogtu hp ont hmee anionfgm an'hsi stoofrs ya lvaatnidou np oan ny
normatijvued gmeanbto uhti sm orasli tuatSioot nh.e tnh et eachoifn g
ReferencteoAs r istogtivlteeh eB ekkearn notation.
Quastiqounloebidse ta(ldeqe uslibeo t)Q.u,o dl. StT homasa,b ouotr igisniainl so ft heh igheosrtd eorfi nterHeisste .x
porefssdios cussiinto hne S ummTah eoliosgc oia!n tainnoetd oinnly
Maint itlaerseg iveinnf ulfolr othewro rkisn,c ludtihne1g 0 s erioefs
Questi8o1n-s3b ,u ta lsionQ uestio8n5o nt heef fecotf s inA.c cordingly
QuastiDoispneust ata.
thisv olumhea sb eepnl annweidt ah v ietwo u nitoyfc onteanntdk eeps
Thev iewrse preseinntt heefod o tnotaensda ppendiwcheisca,hr teh ose togetthhee rd evelopmoeftn hte t opic, aettv heern i sokf b lurrtihneg
oft hEed itoofrt hivso lumaer,ie n s omeca sens ots harbeydt hEed itorial procedurreaals otnhsa dti ctattheed ivisoifot nh etr eatiosnes inTsh.e
Boaradn do thecro llaborators. bearionfthg i sd ivishiaosnn o ti nfa ctb eeing norietdi ;sk epbte forteh e
reademri'nsdb othhe raen di nv olum2e5sa nd2 7.
Fromt heo utsietit s i ndispentsoar belcaelt lh ei mmedicaotnet eoxft
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Questi8o1n-su3 n detrh eh eadi'ntgh,ce a usoefs inB'y.this expression
Iw istho t hanFkrT homaGsi lbOy. Pfo.r a ssistanwcaesp tehrastoa nnadl StT homaisn dicattheeis n fluelnecaedsi tnoag p ersoanc'tisn ign a w ay
fabre yontdh ec alolfh igse nereadli todruitayIla. m a lsdoe epilnyd ebted thaitsm oralblaydA .f tedri scushsoiwns gi cann havaec aus(e7 5h)e,l ooks
toF rW .U .V olOl. Pfo.r t hen oteosnQ uesti8o4an n dt oM issF lorence toi tvsa riotuypse st;h esien clufodrec ebso twhi th(i7n6- 8a)n de xternal
GaudeTt . O..Pfo, r h erg eneraounsdc arewfourlpk r epartihntegy pescript. toa p ers(o7n9 -8a3n)da, l soon e'oswn sinassl eaditnoog t he(r8s4 T)h.e
inquiirnyto or igisniatnlh uhsa si tsp lacient heS ummau ndetrh ec on­
sideraotfti hooenu tsifodrec etsh abtr inagb ousti nS.p ecificalltyh eq ues­
tioinsh owo nehuman beincang be tcahues eo fa nothesri'n's:Wh iloen e
persmoany b et hec ausoefa nothesri'nsn ibnyeg x ternaeln ticemejnuts,t
ast hed eviilsy ,e ta manh asa lsao w ayo fc ausisnignt haitss pecial,
namelbyyw ayo fo rig(i8n1'F, o reworAdft)e.rd utifsuulrlvye yianngo ld
pastotrraald itaiboonur to osti nos,rs ourcsei nos,rca pitasli n(s8 4),
xviii xix