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Teogenes Senna de Oliveira Richard Willian Bell Editors Subsoil Constraints for Crop Production Subsoil Constraints for Crop Production Teogenes Senna de Oliveira Richard Willian Bell Editors Subsoil Constraints for Crop Production Editors Teogenes Senna de Oliveira Richard Willian Bell Soils Department Centre for Sustainable Farming Systems, Federal University of Viçosa Food Futures Institute Viçosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil Murdoch University Murdoch, WA, Australia ISBN 978-3-031-00314-1 ISBN 978-3-031-00317-2 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-00317-2 © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Preface The productivity of crops is strongly influenced by properties of the subsoil, but surprisingly little attention is paid in agronomy, crop science and soil science to the identification, alleviation, and management of subsoil constraints. The last book on the subject was published 27 years ago by Jayawardene and Stewart (1994). However, a recent survey of high-impact soils journals reveals that in the last three decades 73 % of 1,146 published papers did not even mention soil depth, and of those that did, the average depth of soil investigation was only 27 cm (Yost and Hartemink 2020). Hence, the present literature continues to be dominated by studies of topsoil and a neglect of the subsoil. The present volume is intended to increase the focus of soil and crop research on subsoil constraints. It is intended to inform agronomists and crop scientists of the advances in knowledge about subsoil properties and their management and inspire a new generation of researchers to focus on the subsoil and the alleviation of the subsoil constraints to crop production. The study of subsoil constraints for crop production depends on a deeper under- standing of root systems, and their exploration of the soil profile including the subsoil. The other component of subsoil constraints derives from a knowledge of the subsoil properties themselves. In the present volume, chapters examined acidity, salinity and other salt-related constraints, nutrients, soil physical constraints, sandy and gravel subsoils, and soil biological constraints. Subsoil constraints are particularly relevant in rainfed agriculture where deep roots are critical for accessing plant-available stored water and nutrients. Indeed, up to 75% of N, 85% of P and 70% of K may be acquired from the subsoil if root growth is not constrained. Subsoil constraints result in water and nutrients resources not being utilised, or being under-utilised, by plants during the growing season. Alleviation of subsoil constraints represents a promising untapped opportunity to increase crop productivity, and in doing so, to enhance food security. One of the limitations to improved alleviation and management of subsoil constraints is the limited delineation of where such constraints occur. In specific areas, subsoil constraints have been mapped, and there are technologies being developed to alleviate these constraints, for example, in southern Australia. In most parts of the world, such information is lacking. Hence, researchers and policymakers are not in v vi Preface a position to articulate the potential impact of research on subsoil constraints or to identify the best places to undertake research and technology development. The present volume arose from a short course that was run at the Federal University of Vicosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil, in 2016. The short course was the inspi- ration of Professor Bob Gilkes, who conducted pioneering research on a range of subsoil constraints in agricultural and post-mining land in south-west Australia, Brazil, and Thailand over many decades. Recognising similarities between the deeply weathered regoliths in southern Australia and in south-east Brazil, he pro- posed the short course to increase awareness of, and increase research on, subsoil constraints. Following the short course, it was agreed that a book on the subject was needed, and the present editors agreed to undertake that task after Springer agreed to publish this volume. In both Australia and Brazil, the development of vast areas of land for agriculture has depended on soil science to identify subsoil constraints and develop technologies to alleviate these constraints. Hence, we decided that the book chapters would be written as collaborations between Brazilian and Australian authors, and we have been able to accomplish that with most of the chapters. However, the subject of subsoil constraints has a much greater global relevance. Large areas of deeply weathered regolith occur across tropical regions in Latin America, Asia and Africa and also in many other parts of the world due to past climatic influences. These areas are prospective regions for the identification of subsoil constraints and the application of the technologies reviewed in the current volume. Our aim is to high- light the opportunities for increased crop production by alleviating subsoil constraints and to inspire agronomists, crop scientists and soil scientists to develop programmes of research on subsoil constraints across the globe. Viçosa, MG, Brazil Teogenes Senna de Oliveira Murdoch, WA, Australia Richard Willian Bell Contents 1 Introduction to Subsoil Constraints for Crop Production . . . . . . . . . 1 Teogenes Senna de Oliveira and Richard Willian Bell 2 The Geological, Geomorphological, Climatic, and Hydrological Background of Tropical Regoliths and Hostile Subsoils: The Brazilian Landmass. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Carlos Ernesto Gonçalves Reynaud Schaefer, José João Lelis Leal de Souza, Fábio Soares de Oliveira, Guilherme Resende Corrêa, and Elpídio Inácio Fernandes Filho 3 Soil Acidity and Acidification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Clayton Robert Butterly, Telmo Jorge Carneiro Amado, and Caixian Tang 4 Salinity, Sodicity and Alkalinity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Pichu Rengasamy, Claudivan Feitosa de Lacerda, and Hans Raj Gheyi 5 Pyritic Subsoils in Acid Sulfate Soils and Similar Problems in Mined Areas with Sulfidic Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 José João Lelis Leal de Souza and Walter Antônio Pereira Abrahão 6 Physical Subsoil Constraints of Agricultural and Forestry Land . . . 125 Teogenes Senna de Oliveira and Raphael Bragança Alves Fernandes 7 Subsoil and Surface Soil Constraints of Mined Land and Tailings . . 161 Hwat Bing So, Ivo Ribeiro da Silva, Lucas Carvalho Gomes, and Teogenes Senna de Oliveira 8 Sand and Gravel Subsoils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 Craig A. Scanlan, Karen W. Holmes, and Richard Willian Bell 9 Soilborne Pathogens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 Andréa Bittencourt Moura, David Backhouse, Ismail Teodoro de Souza Júnior, and Cesar Bauer Gomes vii viii Contents 10 Root Systems of Agricultural Crops and Their Response to Physical and Chemical Subsoil Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 Mirian Cristina Gomes Costa and Ítalo Antônio Cotta Coutinho 11 Roots and Beneficial Interactions with Soil Microbes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 Bruno Coutinho Moreira, Paulo Prates Júnior, Bernard Dell, and Maria Catarina Megumi Kasuya 12 Nutrient Acquisition with Particular Reference to Subsoil Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 Qifu Ma, Richard Willian Bell, and Edson Marcio Mattiello 13 Water Acquisition by Roots From the Subsoil: Impact of Physical Constraints on the Dynamics of Water Capture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 Wendy H. Vance and Stephen P. Milroy 14 Deep Soil Carbon: Characteristics and Measurement with Particular Bearing on Kaolinitic Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 Podjanee Sangmanee, Bernard Dell, David Henry, and Richard Harper 15 Live Subsoils: Tropical Regolith and Biota Interactions . . . . . . . . . . . 373 Carlos Ernesto Gonçalves Reynaud Schaefer and Fábio Soares de Oliveira 16 Subsoil Constraints for Crop Production: Recent Advances, New Technologies, and Priorities for Further Research . . . . . . . . . . . 397 Richard Willian Bell and Teogenes Senna de Oliveira Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423 Contributors Walter Antônio Pereira Abrahão Soils Department, Federal University of Viçosa, Viçosa, MG, Brazil Telmo Jorge Carneiro Amado Agronomy Faculty, Soil Science Department, Santa Maria Federal University, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil David Backhouse School of Environmental and Rural Science, University of New England, Armidale, NSW, Australia Richard Willian Bell Centre for Sustainable Farming Systems, Food Futures Institute, Murdoch University, Murdoch, WA, Australia Clayton Robert Butterly Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, School of Agriculture and Food, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia Department of Animal, Plant and Soil Science, School of Life Sciences, La Trobe University, Bundoora, VIC, Australia Guilherme Resende Corrêa Geography Institute, Federal University of Uberlândia, Uberlândia, MG, Brazil Mirian Cristina Gomes Costa Soil Science Department, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil Ítalo Antônio Cotta Coutinho Biology Department, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil Ivo Ribeiro da Silva Soils Department, Federal University of Viçosa, Viçosa, MG, Brazil Claudivan Feitosa de Lacerda Agricultural Engineering Department, Federal University of Ceará, Campus do Pici, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil Bernard Dell Agriculture and Forest Sciences, Murdoch University, Murdoch, WA, Australia ix x Contributors Fábio Soares de Oliveira Geography Department, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil Teogenes Senna de Oliveira Soils Department, Federal University of Viçosa, Viçosa, MG, Brazil Ismail Teodoro de Souza Júnior Plant Protection Department, Federal University of Pelotas, Pelotas, RS, Brazil José João Lelis Leal de Souza Soils Department, Federal University of Viçosa, Viçosa, MG, Brazil Raphael Bragança Alves Fernandes Soils Department, Federal University of Viçosa, Viçosa, MG, Brazil Elpídio Inácio Fernandes Filho Soils Department, Federal University of Viçosa, Viçosa, MG, Brazil Hans Raj Gheyi Recôncavo of Bahia Federal University, Cruz das Almas, BA, Brazil César Bauer Gomes Embrapa Temperate Agriculture, Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation, Pelotas, RS, Brazil Lucas Carvalho Gomes Soils Department, Federal University of Viçosa, Viçosa, MG, Brazil Richard Harper Agriculture and Forest Sciences, Murdoch University, Murdoch, WA, Australia David Henry Murdoch University, Murdoch, WA, Australia Karen W. Holmes Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development, South Perth, WA, Australia Paulo Prates Júnior Microbiology Department, Federal University of Viçosa, Viçosa, MG, Brazil Maria Catarina Megumi Kasuya Agriculture and Forest Sciences, Murdoch University, Murdoch, WA, Australia Qifu Ma Centre for Sustainable Farming Systems, Food Futures Institute, Murdoch University, Murdoch, WA, Australia Edson Marcio Mattiello Soils Department, Federal University of Viçosa, Viçosa, MG, Brazil Stephen P. Milroy Centre for Crop and Food Innovation, Food Futures Institute, Murdoch University, Murdoch, WA, Australia Bruno Coutinho Moreira Agricultural Engineering College, Federal University of San Francisco Valley, Petrolina, PE, Brazil