Subsistence in Alaska: Arctic, Interior, Southcentral, Southwest, and Western Regional Summaries

724 Pages·2000·40.91 MB·English

by  Robert F. Schroeder

SUBSISTENCE IN ALASKA:
ARCTIC, INTERIOR, SOUTHCENTRAL, SOUTHWEST,
AND WESTERN REGIONAL SUMMARIES
by
Robert F. Schroeder, David 8. Andersen,
Rob Bosworth, Judith M. Morris,
and John M. Wright
Technical Paper No. 150
Alaska Department of Fish and Game
Division of Subsistence
Juneau, Alaska
September 1987

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
TABLE OF CONTENTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
LlST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V
LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..*................................... xviii
LIST OF MAPS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxvi
INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..*............................. xxix
NORTH SLOPE SUBREGION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Location and Environment .............................................. 1
History and Patterns of Human Activity ................................ 5
Population ............................................................ 13
Land Status ........................................................... 16
The Mixed Subsistence-Cash Economy .................................... 16
Subsistence Use of Fish and Game Resources ............................ 19
KOTZEBUE SOUND SUBREGION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Location and Environment .............................................. 50
History and Patterns of Human Activity ................................ 54
Population ............................................................
Subregion Economy ..................................................... E
Transportation ........................................................ 68
Use of Fish and Game and Other Natural Resources ...................... 69
BERING STRAIT/NORTON SOUND SUBREGION,. ..................,.....,............ 107
Location and Environment .............................................. 107
History and Patterns of Human Activity ................................ 109
Population ............................................................ 120
Subregional Economic Overview ......................................... 123
Land Status ........................................................... 128
Contemporary Patterns of Resource Use ................................. 129
INTERIOR REGION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Location and Environment .............................................. 159
History and Patterns of Human Activity ................................ 161
Population ............................................................ 170
Regional Economy ...................................................... 171
Transportation ........................................................ 172
Land Status ........................................................... 173
Contemporary Subsistence Use of Wild Resources........................17 3
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued) Page
WESTERNR EGION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...216
Location and Environment .............................................. 216
History and Patterns of Human Activity ................................ 220
Population ............................................................ 223
Regional Economy ...................................................... 225
Transportation ........................................................ 227
Use of Fish and Game and Other Natural Resources......................22 8
TOGIAK SUBREGION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Location and Environment..................................................~...~.. ......................
History and Patterns of Human Activities
Population ............................................................ 310
Monetary Economy ...................................................... 312
Use of Fish and Game and Other Natural Resources......................31 3
NUSHAGAKR IVER SUBREGION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Location and Environment .............................................. 321
History and Patterns of Human Activities .............................. 321
Population ............................................................ 323
Monetary Economy .................................................... ..32 5
Use of Fish and Game and Other Natural Resources......................32 8
NUSHAGAKB AY SUBREGION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
Location and Environment .............................................. 338
History and Patterns of Human Activities .............................. 338
Population ............................................................ 339
Monetary Economy ...................................................... 342
Use of Fish and Game and Other Natural Pesources......................34 5
ILIAMNA LAKE SUBREGION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Location and Environment .............................................. 351
History and Patterns of Human Activity ................................ 351
Population ............................................................ 353
Monetary Economy ...................................................... 355
Use of Fish and Game and Other Natural Resources......................35 9
UPPER ALASKA PENINSULA SUBREGION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...371
Location and Environment..............................................37 1
History and Patterns of Human Activities .............................. 372
Transportation and Access ............................................. 376
Population ............................................................ 377
Monetary Economy ...................................................... 379
Uses of Fish and Game and Other Natural Resources.....................38 3
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued) Page
CHIGNIK SUBREGION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
Location and Environment .............................................. 393
History and Patterns of Human Activity ................................ 394
Population ....... ..? .................................................. 395
Transportation and Access ............................................. 398
Monetary Economy ...................................................... 400
Use of Fish and Game and Other Natural Resources......................40 2
LOWERA LASKA PENINSULA SUBREGION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
Location and Environment .............................................. 413
History and Patterns of Human Activity ................................ 413
Population ............................................................ 417
Transportation and Access ............................................. 419
Land Status ........................................................... 421
Monetary Economy ...................................................... 421
Uses of Fish and Game and Other Natural Resources.....................42 4
KODIAK ISLAND SUBREGION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
Location and Environment ................. ............................. 431
History and Patterns of Human Activity ................................ 432
Population ............................................................ 436
Use of Fish and Game and Other Natural Resources......................43 9
ALEUTIAN/PRIBILOF ISLANDS SUBREGION. ........ ............................... 480
Location and Environment ........ ...................................... 480
History and Patterns of Human Activity ................................ 481
Population ............................................................ 484
Use of Fish and Game and Other Natural Resources......................48 5
SOUTHWESTERNR EGION SUBSISTENCE ECNOMIES: OVERVIEW. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...499
Subsistence Society, Culture, Economy ................................. 502
Research on Subsistence Economies in Alaska ........................... 507
Legal Context ....................................................... ..517
UPPER COOK INLET/SUSITNA BASIN SUEREGION. .................................. 528
Location and Environment .............................................. 528
History and Patterns of Human Settlemen' ............................... 531
Population .......................................................... ..53 5
Land Status ........................................................... 538
Use of Fish and Wildlife Resources by Local Residents.................53 9
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued) Page
LOWERC OOK INLET/KENAI PENINSULA SUBREGION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
Location and Environment .............................................. 564
Population ............................................................ 569
Generalized Land Status ............................................... 570
Use of Fish and Wildlife and Other Natural Resources..................57 0
COPPER RIVER BASIN/WRANGELL MOUNTAINS SUBREGION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
Location and Environment .............................................. 586
History and Patterns of Human Settlement .............................. 586
Use of Fish and Wildlife Resources by Lccal Residents.................59 2
PRINCE WILLIAM SOUND SUBREGION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633
Location and Environment .............................................. 633
History and Patterns of Human Settlement .............................. 638
Population ............................................................ 640
Transportation ........................................................ 645
Generalized Land Status ............................................... 646
Use of Fish and Other Natural Resources ............................... 646
REFERENCES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655
iv
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Population Estimates of Traditional North Slope Eskimo
Societies, ca. 1.840 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Table 2. Population of North Slope Communities, 1890-1983............... 15
Table 3. Average Taxable Income for North Slope Communities*
1978, 1981, and 1982 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Table 4. Subsistence Resources Used at Point Hope, ca. 1840............. 22
Table 5. Estimated Costs of Whaling Equipment in 1977................... 39
Table 6. Estimates of Average Annual Harvest Levels of Subsistence
Resources in North Slope Communities, ca 1973.................. 41
Table 7. Annual Harvest of Bowhead Whale and Polar Bear in
Kaktovik, 1962-82 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Table 8. Annual Harvest of Bowhead Whale, Walrus, Hair Seal, and
Polar Bear in Barrow, 1962-82 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Table 9. Annual Harvest of Bowhead Whale, Walrus, Hair Seal, and
Polar Bear in Wainwright, 1962-82 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Table 10. Annual Harvest of Bowhead Whale, Walrus, Hair Seal,
Belukha Whale, and Polar Bear in Point Hope, 1962-82........... 46
Table 11. Numbers and Percentages of Caribou Harvested at Inland
and Coastal Locations by Kaktovik Hunters During the
Regulatory Years 1981-82, 1982-83, and 1983-84................. 48
Table 12. Kotzebue Sound Region Temperature and Precipitation............ 53
Table 13. Average Breakup and Freeze-up Dates for Kottebue
Sound Region............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Table 14. Eskimo Societies of the Kotzebue Scund Subregion of the
1816-1842 Period, with Estimated Population ca. 1840........... 62
Table 15. Time of First Known Contact with Kotzebue Sound Subregion
Societies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Table 16. Population of Kotzebue Sound Subregion Communities, 1910
through 1980 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Table 17. Average Taxable Income for Kotzebue Sound Subregion
Communities, 1978, 1981, and 1982 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
V
LIST OF TABLES (continued) Page
Table 18. Seasonal Round of Tigeragmiut Subsistence Harvesting
Activities, ca 1850 ............................................ 70
Table 19. Seasonal Round of Napaqturmiut Subsistence Harvesting
Activities, ca 1850 ............................................ 71
Table 20. Seasonal Round of Nautarmiut Subsistence Harvesting
Activities, ca 1850 ............................................ 72
Table 21. Reconstructed Seasonal Diet of the Tigeragmiut Based on
Caloric Need for Protein and Carbohydrates, ca 1850 ............ 73
Table 22. Reconstructed Seasonal Diet of the Napaqturmiut Based on
Caloric Need for Protein and Carbohydrates, ca 1850 ............ 74
Table 23. Reconstructed Seasonal Diet of the Nautarmiut Based on
Caloric Need for Protein and Carbohydrates, ca. 1850 ........... 75
Table 24. Per Capita Food Consumption, People and Dogs Combined,
Kivalina, Alaska ............................................... 76
Table 25. Total Harvest of Pounds of Major Food Subsistence
Resources by Species, Kivalina, Alaska ......................... 76
Table 26. Land Mammals Harvested for Subsistence by Kotzebue
Sound Subregion Residents, 1985 ................................ 78
Table 27. Marine Mammals Harvested for Subsistence by Kotzebue
Sound Subregion Residents, 1985 ................................ 80
Table 28. Fish and Invertebrates Harvested for Subsistence by
Kotzebue Sound Subregion Residents, 1985 ....................... 81
Table 29. Birds Harvested for Subsistence by Kotzebue Sound
Subregion Residents, 1985 ...................................... 83
Table 30. Plants Used for Subsistence by Kotzebue Sound Subregion
Residents, 1985 ................................................ 91
Table 31. Inupiaq Taxonomy for Caribou and Dal1 Sheep .................... 93
Table 32. Total Harvest in Pounds of Subsistence Foods Resources
by Harvest Category, Kotzebue Sound Communities, 1972..........10 1
Table 33. Subsistence Harvest of Mammals in Numbers of Animals
and Pounds, Kotzebue Sound Communities, 1972...................10 2
vi
LIST OF TABLES (continued) Page
Table 34. Subsistence Harvest of Fish and Birds in Numbers of
Animals and Pounds, Kotzebue Sound Communities, 1972...........10 3
Table 35. Subsistence Harvest of Plant Resources in Pounds,
Kotzebue Sound Communities, 1972 ............................... 104
Table 36. Bering Strait Societies in the Nineteenth Century..............11 2
Table 37. Norton Sound Societies in the Nineteenth Century...............11 4
Table 38. Population Data for Bering Strait/Norton Sound
Communities, 1890-1980 ......................................... 122
Table 39. Average Taxable Income for Bering Strait/Norton Sound
Communities, 1978, 1981, 1982 .................................. 124
Table 40. Participation in and Value of Commercial Salmon Fishing
in Norton Sound Subdistricts, 1979 ............................. 126
Table 41. Biotic Resources Utilized by Residents of the Bering
Strait/Norton Sound Subregion .................................. 130
Table 42. Participation in Resource Harvest by Shishmaref
Households, 1982 ............................................... 135
Table 43. Number of Walruses Harvested in Gambell, Savoonga, and
Wales, 1962-82 ................................................. 145
Table 44. Characteristics of Gambell and Savoonga Whaling Crews,
1982 ...................... ..................................... 146
Table 45. Number of Bowhead Whales Harvest by St. Lawrence Island
Communities, 1962-82 ........................................... 147
Table 46. Harvests of Major Fish Species Reported by Gambell and
Savoonga Fishermen, 1981 ....................................... 152
Table 47. Species and Numbers of Birds Harvested by Gambell and
Savoonga Households, 1981..... ................................. 153
Table 48. Average Annual Subsistence Resource Harvests for the
Period 1962-1982 in Gambell, Savocnga, and Wales...............15 4
Table 49. Major Fish and Wildlife Resources Utilized by Residents
of Communities in Interior Alaska .............................. 198
Table 50. Population Figures 1890-1980 and 1980 Ethnic Composition
for Interior Alaska Communities ................................ 199
vii
LIST OF TABLES (continued)
Table 51. Population Data for Fairbanks North Star Borough
Communities, 1960-80 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Table 52. Average Taxable Income for Interior Region Communities,
1978-82 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Table 53. Moose Harvest Estimates for Selected Interior Region
Locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Table 54. Minto Flats Management Area, Permit and Harvest Summary
for Moose, 1979-85 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Table 55. Moose Harvest Summary of the GMS 25D Permit Hunt, 1983-84
and 1984-85 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Table 56. Estimated Harvest of Porcupine Caribou by Residents of
Upper Yukon Communities, July 1981 to June 1982................206
Table 57. Participation in Small Game Hunting and Harvest Levels
of Small Game Among Surveyed Households in Communities
on the Upper Koyukuk River, 1982 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Table 58. Subsistence Harvests of Chinook Salmon by Interior Region
Communities Located on the Yukon River and Yukon River
Tributaries, 1977-84 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Table 59. Subsistence Harvest of Summer Chum Salmon by Interior
Region Communities Located on the Yukon River and Yukon
River Tributaries 1977-84 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Table 60. Subsistence Harvests of Fall Chum and Coho Salmon by
Communities Located on the Yukon River and Yukon River
Tributaries, 1977-84 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Table 61. Subsistence Salmon Harvests by Residents of Upper
Kuskokwim River Communities, 1979-84 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Table 62. Participation and Harvest of Nonsalmon Fish Resources
by Surveyed Households of Upper Koyukuk River Communities
in 1982 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Table 63. Harvest of Nonsalmon Fish Resources by Residents of
Huslia, 1983 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..*................................ 213
Table 64. Percent of Surveyed Households in Upper Tanana River
Communities who participated in Fishing for Listed Species
During a 12-Month Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Table 65. Plant Resources Commonly Utilized by lnterior Residents........214
viii