Studies in Outdoor Recreation: Search and Research for Satisfaction

482 Pages·2011·14.267 MB·English

by  Robert E. Manning

Studies in Outdoor Recreation

Studies in Outdoor Recreation
Search and Research for Satisfaction
Third Edition
Robert E. Manning
Oregon State University Press Corvallis
The paper in this book meets the guidelines for permanence and durability of
the Committee on Production Guidelines for Book Longevity of the Council
on Library Resources and the minimum requirements of the American National
Standard for Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials Z39.48-1984.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Manning, Robert E., 1946-
Studies in outdoor recreation : search and research for satisfaction / Robert E.
Manning. -- 3rd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-87071-590-7 (alk. paper)
1. Outdoor recreation--Research--Evaluation. I. Title.
GV191.6.M314 1999
306.4’83--dc22
2010029928
© 2011 Robert E. Manning
All rights reserved. First published in 2011 by Oregon State University Press
Printed in the United States of America
Oregon State University Press
121 The Valley Library
Corvallis OR 97331-4501
541-737-3166 • fax [phone]
http://oregonstate.edu/dept/press
To my colleagues in park and outdoor recreation research—
past and present, known and unknown, university
professors, government scientists, and graduate students—
whose studies and writing make this book possible.

Contents
Preface to the Third Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
1. Search and Research for Satisfaction:
An Introduction to Outdoor Recreation Research
Objectives of the Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Research in Outdoor Recreation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Search and Research for Satisfaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Diversity in Outdoor Recreation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Quality in Outdoor Recreation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Summary and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2. Social Aspects of Outdoor Recreation: Use and Users
Recreation Use and Users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Outdoor Recreation Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Use Distribution and Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Social Correlates of Outdoor Recreation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Cultural Influences on Outdoor Recreation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Summary and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3. Descriptive Aspects of Outdoor Recreation:
Attitudes, Preferences, Perceptions
Visitor Attitudes and Preferences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Developed Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Backcountry and Wilderness Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Trade-offs Among Recreation Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Perceptions of Environmental Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Visitor Versus Manager Perceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Summary and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4. Carrying Capacity: Protecting Recreation
Resources and the Visitor Experience
Origins of Carrying Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Carrying Capacity and Recreation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Limits of Acceptable Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Management Objectives and Indicators and Standards of Quality . . . . . . . . . . 86
Carrying Capacity Frameworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
The Status of Carrying Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Summary and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5. Crowding in Outdoor Recreation:
Use Level, Perceived Crowding, and Visitor Satisfaction
Concern with Crowding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Empirical Studies of Crowding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
The Satisfaction Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101
Testing the Satisfaction Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102
Expanding the Satisfaction Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
Normative Definitions of Crowding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116
Methodological Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129
An Expanded Crowding Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .134
Summary and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .135
6. Indicators and Standards of Quality: A Normative Approach
A Normative Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137
Norm Theory and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .138
Indicators of Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139
Standards of Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .146
Theoretical and Methodological Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150
Summary and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .163
7. Motivations and Benefits in Outdoor Recreation:
A Behavioral Approach
Early Explorations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .166
A Behavioral Approach to Recreation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .167
Empirical Tests of the Behavioral Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .169
Benefits-Based Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .181
Conceptual and Methodological Issues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .186
Summary and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .188
8. The Recreation Opportunity Spectrum: Designs for Diversity
Designs for Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .190
The Recreation Opportunity Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .192
Linking Activities, Settings, Motivations, and Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .196
Extending the Opportunity Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .201
Summary and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .204
9. Recreation Conflict: Goal Interference and Social Values
Conflict in Outdoor Recreation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .206
Theoretical Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .208
Empirical Studies of Conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .211
Measuring Conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215
An Expanded Conflict Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .216
Managing Conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .217
Summary and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .218
10. Substitutability: Alternative Recreation Opportunities
The Concept of Substitutability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .220
Activity Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .221
Direct Measures of Substitutability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .224
Theory and Methods of Substitutability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .231
Summary and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .235
11. Specialization in Recreation: Experience and Related Concepts
Recreation Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .237
Measures of Recreation Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .238
From Experience to Specialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .242
Theory and Methods of Specialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .248
Summary and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .253
12. Outdoor Recreation Places: Emotional and Symbolic Meanings
An Alternative Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .256
Measures of Place Attachment and Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .257
Theoretical Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .262
Summary and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .271
13. Managing Outdoor Recreation: Alternative Management Practices
Outdoor Recreation Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .273
Alternative Management Practices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .279
Evaluating Management Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .279
Information and Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .279
Use Rationing and Allocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .292
Other Recreation Management Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .306
Status and Trends in Recreation Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315
Summary and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .319