Structural Use of Glass

233 Pages·2008·4.932 MB·English

by  Haldimann, Matthias, Luible, Andreas, Overend, Mauro

Structural Engineering Document
1SE0D
Matthias Haldimann
Andreas Luible
Mauro Overend
Structural Use of Glass
InternationalAssociationforBridgeandStructuralEngineering IABSE
AssociationInternationaledesPontsetCharpentes AIPC
InternationaleVereinigungfürBrückenbauundHochbau IVBH
Copyright©2008by
InternationalAssociationforBridgeandStructuralEngineering
Allrightsreserved. Nopartofthisbookmaybereproducedinanyformorbyanymeans,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information
storageandretrievalsystem,withoutpermissioninwritingfromthepublisher.
ISBN978-3-85748-119-2
Publisher:
IABSE-AIPC-IVBH
ETHZürich
CH-8093Zürich,Switzerland
Phone: Int. [phone]
Fax: Int. [phone]
E-mail: [email protected]
Web: www.iabse.org
Preface
All common applications of architectural glass may be deemed as ‘structural’. A small
glasspaneinatraditionalfour-edgesupportedwindowframemustwithstandself-weight,
wind-inducedpressures,thermalstrainsandoccasionalcleaningloads. Unsurprisingly
thereareseveralsuitableguidelinesandadequaterulesofthumbthatenableappropriate
designofthesetraditionalapplications.
Recentarchitecturaltrendsandtechnologicaldevelopmentshavebroughtaboutun-
precedented opportunities and major changes in the use of glass in buildings. These
includetheuseoflargeareaglasspanels;theuseofglassinareastraditionallyreserved
for other materials such as roofs, floors, staircases and partitions; a vast selection of
improvedglassproducts;awiderangeofnovelsupportandconnectiondetailsincluding
boltedglass. Theconsequenceoftheseexcitingapplicationsisthatglassisoftensubjected
toonerousactionsandcomplexstatesofstress. Furthermoretheglassmaynowcontribute
to the integrity of the overall structure and the consequence of failure is considerably
greater,suchthattheglasshasamore‘structural’rolethanthesmallglasspaneinthe
traditional four-edge supported window. In such applications the traditional rules of
thumbareoflittleassistanceasthesimplifyingassumptionsembeddedwithinthemno
longerholdtrueandcannotbeextrapolatedfromthespecificglassproductandsimple
boundaryconditionsforwhichtheyweredevised.
Structuralengineerscurrentlyhaveabewilderingarrayofglassproductsandconfigu-
rationstochoosefromandawiderangeofnormalandexceptionalloadingconditions
toconsider,butveryfewunifiedreferencetextsforundertakingthesetasks. Thisbook
attemptstoredressthisissuebyprovidinganoverviewoftherecentdevelopmentsinthis
fieldtherebyprovidingabasisfortheunderstandingofthestructuralperformanceand
designofglassinbuildings.
Thebookisprimarilyforstructuralengineersandresearcherswhohaveaninterest
instructuralglass. Itdrawsontopicsfrommanyspecialistareassuchasmanufacturing,
materialsscience,fracturemechanics,computationalanalysis,reliabilityandforensicengi-
neeringandisthereforealsorelevanttoprofessionalsinthisfield. Thelevelisappropriate
forseniorundergraduates,post-graduatestudents,researchersandpractisingengineers.
Thelevelofinterestandthedepthofknowledgewillvaryforinstancebetweenthe
generalpractisingengineerwhomaybeinterestedingaininganoverviewofthegeneral
design considerations and specification of glass structures, to the researcher who may
beinterestedinaspecificfracturephenomenoninglass. Thiswiderangeofinterestis
accommodatedbyprovidingamixofgeneralandspecialistchapters. Furthermore,the
textissupplementedbytablesoftherelevantcodesofpracticeandbyanextensivelistof
references.
Thefirstchapterprovidesareviewofglassproduction,processingmethodsandglass
productsrangingfromclearfloatglasstothemorerecentdevelopmentsinswitchable
glazing. Thechapteralsoprovidesbothausefullistingofglassproductsaswellasthe
underlyingprinciplesthataffectthemechanicalpropertiesofglass. Chapter2provides
general guidelines on the analysis and design of glass structures, including advice on
actionsonglassstructures,structuralanalysisandcomputationalmodellingaswellas
post-breakagebehaviourandrequirements. Chapter3providesananswertotheelusive
question ’What is the strength of glass?’ by presenting an account of glass fracture
mechanismsandformulatingusefulstochasticfailurepredictionmodelsforasingleflaw
and for random surface flaw populations. The chapter also provides an overview of
fundamental dynamic fracture mechanics which is useful in glass forensics. Chapter
4 presents a series of quick checks and rules of thumb that are useful for preliminary
sizing of structural glass elements. This chapter also reviews the main standards and
codes of practice used for the design of structural glass and provides a commentary
on the strengths and shortcomings of these standards. Chapter 5 covers the exciting
possibilitiesofferedbyloadingglassincompressionandthefactorsthataffectbuckling
instabilityinglass. Thechapterprovidesguidelinesontheperformanceandstructural
designofglasselementsthatundergocolumnbuckling, lateraltorsionalbucklingand
plate buckling. Chapter 6 provides recommendations on how the fracture mechanics
formulations presented in the previous chapters may be deployed in practice. This
chapter provides guidelines on how to overcome the limitations of laboratory testing
andhowtoobtainstatisticallyrelevantandconsistentdata. Chapter7presentsareview
of connections and support fixings commonly used in glass structures and provides
recommendations on good detailing. The chapter also provides useful sizing charts
forboltedfixingsandreviewstherecentdevelopmentsinenhancedmechanicalfixings
and adhesive connections. Chapter 8 reviews the current practice and standards used
forthedesign-assisted-by-testingapproach,whichisparticularlyrelevantforassessing
post-breakageandimpactperformance. Thischapteralsoincludespracticaladvicefor
undertakingforensicengineeringinglassstructures.
Thisbookthereforeprovidesasnapshotoftherecentdevelopmentsinthestructural
useofglassinbuildingsanddrawsfromthelatestdevelopmentsinpracticeandresearch.
Thiswasonlypossiblethankstothecontributionsfromstudentsandcolleagueswhohave
kindlydonatedtheirworkortheirtime. Theircontributionsaregratefullyacknowledged
inthetextandthereferences. Thecontentsofthisbookhavealsobeengreatlyenriched
bythecontributionsofseveralglassexperts,whohaveprovidedsubstantialinputand
adviceonspecificsectionsofthisbook. Theirnamesarelistedbelowandarealsoshown
alongsidetheheadingsofthesectionstheycontributedin.
BenjaminBEER WernerSobekStuttgart,Germany
LucioBLANDINI,Dr. WernerSobekStuttgart,Germany
MickEEKHOUT,Prof.Dr. Octatube,Delft,TheNetherlands
ChristophHAAS ErnstBasler+PartnerAG,Zürich,Switzerland
IrisMANIATIS,Dr. UniversityoftheGermanFederalArmedForcesMunich,Germany
JürgenNEUGEBAUER,Dr. UniversityofAppliedSciences,FHJoanneum,Graz,Austria
JensSCHNEIDER,Prof.Dr. FrankfurtUniversityofAppliedSciences,Germany
WernerSOBEK,Prof.Dr. WernerSobekStuttgart,Germany
GeraltSIEBERT,Prof.Dr. UniversityoftheGermanFederalArmedForcesMunich,Germany
RonaldVISSER Octatube,Delft,TheNetherlands
FrankWELLERSHOFF,Dr. PermasteelisaCentralEuropeGmbH,Würzburg,Germany
Finally a special word of thanks goes to the IABSE Structural Engineering Documents
EditorialBoard,especiallytoGeoffTaplin,andtotheirreviewersChrisJofehandGeralt
Siebert,whokindlyreviewedthedraftsofthisbookandhelpedtoimproveitwiththeir
valuablefeedback.
Berne,BaselandNottingham/January2008 Dr.MatthiasHaldimann
Dr.AndreasLuible
Dr.MauroOverend
Contents
1 Material 1
1.1 Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Productionofflatglass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Productionofcastglassandglassprofiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.3 Relevantstandards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Materialproperties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.1 Compositionandchemicalproperties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.2 Physicalproperties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Processingandglassproducts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.2 Temperingofglass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.3 Laminatedglass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.3.4 Insulatingglassunits(IGU) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.3.5 Curvedglass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.3.6 Decorativesurfacemodificationprocesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.3.7 Functionalcoatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.3.8 Switchableglazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.3.9 Otherrecentglasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.3.10 Relevantstandards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2 General Design Guidelines 27
2.1 Thedesignprocess . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.1.1 Particularitiesofglassstructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.1.2 Riskanalysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.1.3 Post-breakagebehaviourandrobustness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.2 Actionsonglassstructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.2.1 Particularitiesofglassstructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.2.2 Windloads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.2.3 Correlationofwindloadandmaterialtemperature . . . . . . . . . 33
2.2.4 Seismicloadsandmovements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.2.5 Impactloads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.2.6 Bombblast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.2.7 Internalpressureloadsoninsulatedglassunits . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.2.8 Thermalstress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.2.9 Surfacedamage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.3 Structuralanalysisandmodelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.3.1 Geometricnon-linearity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.3.2 Finiteelementanalysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.3.3 Simplifiedapproachesandaids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.4 Requirementsforapplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.4.1 Verticalglazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.4.2 Overheadglazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.4.3 Accessibleglazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.4.4 Railingsandbalustrades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3 Fracture Strength of Glass Elements 49
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.2 Stresscorrosionandsub-criticalcrackgrowth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.2.1 Relationshipbetweencrackvelocityandstressintensity . . . . . . 50
3.2.2 Crackhealing,crackgrowththresholdandhysteresiseffect . . . . 52
3.2.3 Influencesontherelationshipbetweenstressintensityandcrack
growth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.3 Quasi-staticfracturemechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.3.1 Stressintensityandfracturetoughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.3.2 Heat-treatedglass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.3.3 Inertstrength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.3.4 Lifetimeofasingleflaw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.3.5 Lifetimeofaglasselementwitharandomsurfaceflawpopulation 62
3.3.6 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.4 Dynamicfracturemechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.5 Laboratorytestingprocedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.5.1 Testingproceduresforcrackvelocityparameters . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.5.2 Testingproceduresforstrengthdata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.6 Quantitativeconsiderations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.6.2 Geometryfactor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.6.3 Ambientstrengthandsurfacecondition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.6.4 Residualsurfacestressduetothermaltempering. . . . . . . . . . . 81
4 Current Standards, Guidelines and Design Methods 85
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.2 Rulesofthumb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.2.1 Allowablestressbaseddesignmethods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.2.2 Recommendedspan/thicknessratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.3 Europeanstandardsanddesignmethods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.3.1 DELRdesignmethod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.3.2 EuropeandraftstandardprEN13474 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.3.3 Shen’sdesignmethod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.3.4 Siebert’sdesignmethod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.4 NorthAmericanstandardsanddesignmethods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.4.1 Glassfailurepredictionmodel(GFPM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.4.2 AmericanNationalstandardASTME1300 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.4.3 CanadianNationalstandardCAN/CGSB12.20 . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.5 Analysisandcomments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
4.6 ConclusionandOutlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
5 Design for Compressive In-plane Loads and Stability Problems 107
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.2 Parametershavinganinfluenceonthebucklingbehaviour . . . . . . . 108
5.2.1 Glassthickness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.2.2 Initialdeformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.2.3 Interlayermaterialbehaviourinlaminatedglass . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.2.4 Boundaryconditionsandglassfixings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.3 Columnbuckling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
5.3.1 Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
5.3.2 Loadcarryingbehaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.3.3 Structuraldesign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
5.3.4 Intermediatelateralsupports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
5.3.5 Influenceoftheloadintroduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
5.4 Lateraltorsionalbuckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
5.4.1 Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
5.4.2 Loadcarryingbehaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
5.4.3 Structuraldesign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
5.5 Platebuckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
5.5.1 Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
5.5.2 Loadcarryingbehaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
5.5.3 Structuraldesign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
6 Design Methods for Improved Accuracy and Flexibility 131
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6.2 Surfaceconditionmodelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6.2.1 Singlesurfaceflawmodel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6.2.2 Randomsurfaceflawpopulationmodel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
6.3 Recommendationsfordesign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
6.4 Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
6.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
6.4.2 Determinationofsurfaceconditionparameters . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
6.4.3 Obtainingstrengthdatafordesignflaws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
6.5 Overviewofmathematicalrelationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
7 Glass Connections 143
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
7.2 Mechanicalfixings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
7.2.1 Linearlysupportedglazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
7.2.2 Clampedandfriction-gripfixings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
7.2.3 Boltedsupports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
7.3 Gluedconnections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
7.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
7.3.2 Structuralsiliconesealantconnections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
7.3.3 Rigidadhesiveconnections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
7.4 Recentdevelopmentsandtrends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
7.4.1 Increasingthepost-breakagestructuralcapacitywithfabricembeds 164
7.4.2 Increasingthepost-breakagestructuralcapacitywithnewgeome-
tries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
7.4.3 Highcapacityadhesiveconnections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
8 Special Topics 169
8.1 Designassistedbytesting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
8.1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
8.1.2 Post-breakagestructuralcapacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
8.1.3 Impacttesting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
8.1.4 Testingconnections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
8.2 Diagnosticinterpretationofglassfailures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
8.2.1 Qualitativeanalysisoffailedarchitecturalglass . . . . . . . . . . . 174
8.2.2 Quantitativeanalysisoffailedarchitecturalglass. . . . . . . . . . . 175
A Notation, Abbreviations 177
B Glossary of Terms 183
C Statistical Fundamentals 194
References 199
Index 211
Chapter
1
Material
Thistexthasbeencompiledincollaborationwiththefollowingexperts:
Prof.Dr.JensSchneider
1.1 Production
1.1.1 Productionofflatglass
Figure1.1givesanoverviewofthemostcommonglassproductionprocesses,processing
methodsandglassproducts. Themainproductionstepsarealwayssimilar: meltingat
◦ ◦ ◦
1600–1800 C,formingat800–1600 Candcoolingat100–800 C.
Natural Cullet
ingredients Melting
(20%)
(80%)
ction Drawing Blowing Pressing Floating Craoslltiinngg, Edexftirbarcattiioonn,
u
d
Pro Cooling Cooling Cooling Cooling Cooling Cooling
Grinding,
Grinding, Grinding, drilling,coating,
Processing Printing dcroillploiemnoutglcerisi,hlnthciignnion,ggaga,,t,cinidg dcroilllpoiemnoutglecri,sihlnthciignnoin,ggaga,,t,icnigd, saltaenbpmmderinipnbndetlaaiinrntsiignngti,gg,n,,g, drillGipbnrergiinnn,ddtciniionngagg,t,ing, coHmsahrpdareepnsinisngingg,,
engraving engraving mirroring,acid
etching
Products Goplatiscfsiabltruegblaesss, gwlHaalsoargsleblleo,aoswdsr,asrgilteanolsamkryisnpsgs, blloencGkslsea,sss,scgerlsea,esnss fagWclaasfisndtusrderu,nocmgiwttluuairrrasreaosnlredss,, bFllogacltakgsfsilsea,,lscdgsosl,oacksaisnsgt ftGieblxraetwsisleso,owsgtllooaonslse,
Figure1.1: Glassproductionprocessesandproductsoverview.
1