Strickberger's Evolution

783 Pages·2007·75.846 MB·English

by  Brian K. Hall, Benedikt Hallgrímsson

FOURTH EDITION
BENEDIKT
Abbreviations
Note: See the Glossary for more detailed definitions of many of these terms.
A angstrom (one ten-billionth [1010] of a meter km kilometer
ADP adenosine diphosphate L liter
AIDS acquired immune-deficiency syndrome lb pound (weight)
AMP adenosine monophosphate m meter
A-P axis the antero-posterior axis of bilaterally miRNA microRNA
symmetrical animals
mm millimeter
ATP adenosine-5'-triphosphate
mRNA messenger RNA
bmp bone morphogenetic protein gene family
mtDNA mitochondrial DNA
bp base pairs of nucleotides
My million years
By billion years
Mya million years ago
Bya billion years ago
Ne effective population size
°C degree of temperature in the Centigrade scale
oz ounce
CAMs cell adhesion molecules
pax6 paired rule gene 6 in vertebrates
cDNA complimentary deoxyribonucleic acid
PCR polymerase chain reaction
CMB cosmic microwave background radiation
P-D axis the proximo-distal axis of bilaterally
D Darwin units
symmetrical animals
D genetic distance
RFLP restriction fragment length polymorphism
DDT dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane
rm intrinsic rate of natural increase of a population
dll distalless gene in Drosophila
RNA ribonucleic acid
dlx distalless gene in vertebrates
RNAi RNA interference; the process of regulating gene
DNA deoxyribonucleic acid transcription using siRNA
D-V axis the dorso-ventral axis of bilaterally rRNA ribosomal RNA
symmetrical animals
5S rRNA large subunit of all cytoplasmic and most
F inbreeding coefficient organelle ribosomes.
FAD flavine adenine dinucleotide 16S rRNA small subunit of bacterial cytoplasmic and
FeS2 pyrite most organelle ribosomes
fgf fibroblast growth factor gene family 185 rRNA the small subunit of eukaryote cytoplasmic
ft feet and most organelle ribosomes
g gram s selection coefficient
gal gallon shh sonic hedgehog gene
SINEs short interspersed nuclear elements
G-C guanine-cytosine content of DNA
GM genetically modified siRNA small interference RNA
HIV human immunodeficiency virus SNIPS short tandem repeat polymorphisms
HnRNA heterogeneous nuclear RNA SSUrRNA small subunit ribosomal RNA
Hox homeobox gene family in vertebrates STRPs simple tandem repeat polymorphisms
Hsp heat shock proteins tRNA transfer RNA
in inch UDP uridine-5'-diphosphate
IVF in vitro fertilization UTL universal tree of life
K carrying capacity of environment for X/A the ratio of X chromosomes to autosomes
population YAC yeast artificial chromosome
K temperature in the Kelvin scale z cosmological constant
kcal kilocalories (1,000 calories) z redshift

lUTION
THE INTEGRATION OF GENES, ORGANISMS AND POPULATIONS
FOURTH EDITION
BRIAN K. HALL
Dalhousie University
BENEDICT HALLGRIMSSON
JONES AND BARTLETT PUBLISHERS
Sudbury, Massachusetts
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Production Credits
Chief Executive Officer: Clayton Jones
Chief Operating Officer: Don W. Jones, Jr.
President, Higher Education and Professional
Publishing: Robert W. Holland, Jr.
V.P., Design and Production: Anne Spencer
V.P., Manufacturing and Inventory Control: Therese Connell The animal pictured in the right-hand page corner throughout
V.P., Sales and Marketing: William J. Kane this book is an early tetrapod, a "four-footed" animal. Moving
Executive Editor, Science: Cathleen Sether from water to land was a critical step in tetrapod evolution;
fossil evidence of stem and early tetrapods indicates that this
Acquisitions Editor, Science: Shoshanna Grossman
occurred about 365 million years ago (see Chapter 18). Hypoth¬
Managing Editor, Science: Dean W. DeChambeau
esized advantages to moving to land include avoiding predators
Associate Editor, Science: Molly Steinbach
and exploiting terrestrial food sources, such as insects. FLip
Editorial Assistant: Briana Gardell
the pages of this book from front to back to watch the animal
Senior Production Editor: Louis C. Bruno, Jr. "evolve."
Production Assistant: Leah E. Corrigan
Senior Marketing Manager: Andrea DeFronzo
Text and Cover Design: Anne Spencer
Illustrations: Elizabeth Morales
Photo Research Manager/Photographer: Kimberly L. Potvin
Associate Photo Researcher: Christine McKeen
Composition: NK Graphics
Printing and Binding: Malloy
Cover Printing: Lehigh Press
Cover Image: © Matthew Oldfield Scubazoo/SPL/
Photo Researchers, Inc.
About the cover: Pygmy seahorse (Hippocampus bargibanti) camouflaged on a sea fan coral (Muricella sp.). These seahorses have scale¬
less bodies and prehensile tails, which they may use to hold on to their gorgonian home. The coloration and texture of this tiny seahorse
has evolved to match the color and shape of its host coral. It inhabits the tropical coral reefs of the western Pacific Ocean and reaches no
more than 2.4 centimeters in length. Photographed in Pulau Kapalai, Sabah, Malaysia.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Hall, Brian Keith, 1941—
Strickberger’s evolution / Brian K. Hall, Benedikt Hallgrimsson.
p. cm.
Rev. ed. of: Evolution / Monroe W. Strickberger. 3rd ed. c2000.
Includes index.
ISBN 978-0-7637-0066-9 (alk. paper)
1. Evolution (Biology) I. Hallgrimsson, Benedikt. II. Strickberger, Monroe W. Evolution. III. Title. IV. Title- Evolution
QH366.2.S78 2008
576.8—dc22 2007008981
6048
Printed in the United States of America
11 10 09 08 07 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
The Historical Framework:
Animals and Their Origin .... 343
Evolution as Science.1
16
CHAPTER Evolution among the
CHAP ER Before Darwin.2 Invertebrates.363
Darwin and Natural CHAPTER Chordate and Vertebrate
Selection.20 Origins.398
The Arguments and the Evidence for CHAPTER 18 From Water to Land to Air:
Evolution.35 Amphibians and Amniotes. . . . 425
CHAPTER 19 Evolution of Mammals.464
Part 2 Origins: The Enormity of
Primate Evolution and Human
Time.62
Origins.487
CHAPTER 4
The Origins of Cosmic Structures
and Chemical Elements.64 Part 5 Populations and Speciation:
CHAPTER 5 Changes Within and Between
Origin of Earth.75
Species.538
CHAPTER 6
Molecules, Protocells and Natural
Selection.98 CHAPTER 21
Populations, Gene Frequencies
CHAPTER 7 From Molecules to Life.127 and Equilibrium. 540
CHAPTER 8 Origins of Cells and the First CHAPTER 22 Changes in Gene Frequencies. . 560
23
Organisms.142 CHAPTER Structure and Maintenance of
Populations. 581
Part 3 The Organic Framework: 24
CHAPTER From Populations to Species . . 610
Genes Cells and
Development.172 Part 6 Evolution and Society: Past,
Present and Future; Society and
ER 9
Cell Division, Mendelian Genetics Religion.636
and Sex Determination .174
Cultural and Human-Directed
10
CHAPTER Chromosomes, Mutation, Gene Evolution.638
Regulation and Variation.196
CHAPTER 26 Belief, Religion and Evolution . 659
CHARIER 1 Species, Phylogeny and
Literature Cited.674
Classification.228
Glossary.707
CHAPTER 1 ; Genes and Phylogenetic
Relationships.248 Index.734
CHAPTER j 3 Genes, Development and
Evolution.287
Part 4 The Organisms: The
Diversity of Life.312
CHAPTER 1 Evolution of Plants and Fungi . 314
in
■ mT
Preface.xi Part 2 Origins: The Enormity of
Time...62
Part 1 The Historical Framework:
4
Evolution as Science.1 CHAPTER The Origins of Cosmic Structures and
Chemical Elements.64
CHAPTER 1 Before Darwin.2 Based on a revision contributed by Virginia
Idealism, Species and the Species Trimble; University of California, Irvine
Concept 4 Steady State or Evolutionary Cosmology?
The Great Chain of Being 7 65
Progress to Perfection 8 Inflation 65
Classification and the Reality of The First 380,000 Years 67
Species 9 First Lights and the Formation of Galaxies
Spontaneous Generation 12 68
Preformation 13 Formation of Stars and ChemicaL Elements
Epigenesis 13 69
Fossils 14 Galactic Chemical Evolution 71
BOX 1-1 Evolution: An Overview of the
The Shape and Future of the
Term and the Concept(s) 4
Universe 72
BOX 1-2 Classification of Geological
BOX 4-1 The Four Fundamental Forces 68
Strata 17
BOX 4-2 Alternate Theories to
Profile Ernst Mayr 18
Inflation 72
2
Profile Virginia L. Trimble 73
CHAPTER Darwin and Natural Selection. . . 20
5
Charles Darwin 21 CHAPTER Origin of Earth.75
Voyage of the Beagle 22
Origin of the Planets 76
Lamarckian Inheritance 26
Origin of Earth's Atmosphere 77
Natural Selection 28 Oxygen 79
A Short History of the Concept of Origin of Earth's Structure and of the Moon
Natural Selection 29
79
Malthus and Darwin 29
The Moon 79
Wallace and Darwin 30
Earth’s Core 80
BOX 2-1 Darwin's Finches 26
Earth’s Mantle and Crust 81
CHAPTER 3 The Arguments and the Evidence for Geological Dating 81
Radiometric Dating 84
Evolution.35
Origin of the Continents: Continental
Scientific Objections 36
Drift 86
Blending Inheritance 36
Fit of the Continents 86
Variation 37
Similarity of Rocks, Fossils and
Geographical Isolation 38
Glaciations 87
Earth’s Age 40
Paleomagnetism 87
Support for Darwin 42
Ocean Floor 88
Geographical Distribution and
To and From Pangaea 89
Systematics 42
Plate Tectonics 90
Comparative Anatomy 43
Homology 43 Biological Consequences of Plate
Vestiges 46 Tectonics 94
Embryology 50 BOX 5-1 Planets and Dwarf Planets 78
Fossils 52 BOX 5-2 Is There Life Elsewhere in the
Living Fossils 58 Universe? 78
Artificial Selection 58 6
CHAPTER Molecules, Protocells and Natural
Natural Selection 59
Selection 98
BOX 3-1 Eye Evolution 38
BOX 3-2 Darwin and Earth's Age 41 Amino Acids 99
IV
Nucleic Acids 101
Replication and the Double Helix 103 CHAPTER 3 Origins of Cells and the First
Transcription and Translation 103 Organisms.142
Theories of How Life Started 107 Early Fossilized Cells 142
Creation Myths 107 Stromatolites 142
Spontaneous Generation 107 Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes 147
Life in All Matter 108 Organelles 149
Extraterrestrial Origins of Life 108 Gene Structure 151
The Terrestrial Origin of Life 109 Introns Early or Introns Late 152
Likelihood and Complexity 109 The Ancestral Organism 154
Prerequisites for the Origin of the First
Evolution of Eukaryotic
Molecules 109
Organelles 155
Evidence from Experiments and from Nuclei 157
Meteorites 111 Metabolism 158
Condensation and Polymerization 114 Anaerobic Metabolism 158
Production of Polymers in the Laboratory Retrograde (Backward) Evolution 158
114 Rules of Change 159
Possible Sites for the Origin of Reduction-Oxidation 159
Molecules 118 Photosynthesis 161
Membranes: The First Structures 120 Carbon Source 161
Protocells 121 Oxygen 164
Production of Coacervates in the Aerobic Metabolism 166
Laboratory 122 Ozone 167
Production of Microspheres in the Evolution of Eukaryotes 167
Laboratory 123 BOX 8-1 Kingdoms and Domains of
Tobacco Mosaic Virus 124 Life 144
The Origin of Selection 124 BOX 8-2 Multicellularity and
Selection for What? 124 Pluricellularity 149
BOX 6-1 What is a Gene? 107 BOX 8-3 Complexity 150
BOX 6-2 What is Life? 108 BOX 8-4 The Krebs Cycle 168
BOX 6-3 Origin of Molecules in Deep-Sea Profile Lynn Margulis 170
Hydrothermal Vents 112
BOX 6-4 Pathways for the Production of Part 3 The Organic Framework:
Five Classes of Organic Molecules 116
Genes Cells and
BOX 6-5 Condensing Agents and the
Formation of Peptide Bonds 118
Development.172
Profile J. William Schopf 125
CHAPTER From Molecules to Life.127 Cell Division, Mendelian Genetics
An RNA World 129 and Sex Determination 174
RNA First 129 Constancy and Variability 175
Templates, Catalysts and Mutations 130 Cell Division 175
Why Is RNA Still with Us? 131 Mitosis 175
Molecules from Clays 131 Meiosis 176
Proteins First 132 Sources of Variation 179
Peptides Synthesis without RNA 132 Mendelian Segregation and
Evolution of Protein Synthesis Assortment 180
Machinery 132 Mendel’s Experiments 180
WhyDNA? 134 Principle of Segregation 180
Evolution of the Genetic Code 134 Principle of Independent
Redundancy 134 Assortment 181
Why This Particular Code? 135 Building on Mendel: Dominance Relations
Frozen Accidents 136 and Multiple Alleles 181
BOX 7-1 Prion Diseases 133 Incomplete Dominance and
Codominance 181
CHAPTER XX Title Goes Here v
VI CONTENTS
Multiple Alleles 182 Phylogeny 234
Epistasis 182 Homology 237
Exceptions to Mendelian Genetics 184 Homology, Partial Homology and Percent
Extranuclear Inheritance 184 Similarity 237
Unexpected Patterns of Segregation 184 Homology and Constructing Phylogenetic
Sex Determination 185 Trees 238
The Genetics of Sex Determination 185 Convergence and Parallelism 240
Sex Chromosomes 185 Phylogenetic Trees 240
Autosomes and Sex Determination 188
CLadistics 242
Environmentally Induced Sex
BOX 11-1 Hierarchy 238
Determination 189
BOX 11-2 Phyla 243
Sex Linkage 190
BOX 11-3 Phylogenetic Species 244
Linkage and Recombination 190 2
BOX 9-1 The Evolution of Sex-Determining CHAPTER 1 Genes and Phylogenetic
Mechanisms 186 Relationships.248
1 Proteins and Phylogenetic
CHAPTER 0 Chromosomes, Mutation, Gene
Relationships 249
Regulation and Variation.196
Amino Acid Sequences: Hemoglobin
Variation and Variability 197
Phylogeny 251
Variation in Chromosome Number 197
Gene Duplication and Divergence 251
Polyploidy 197
Many Trees, One Phylogeny 255
Phenotype of the Chromosome 200
Convergent Molecular Evolution 256
Deletions or Deficiencies 200
DNA and Its Repetitive Sequences 257
Duplications 201
Nucleic Acid Phytogenies 262
Inversions 202
Rates of Nucleotide Substitution 262
Translocations 202
Restriction Fragment Length
Chromosomal Evolution in Drosophila and
Polymorphisms 264
Primates 202
Nucleotide Sequence Comparisons and
Gene Mutations 206
Homologies 265
Gene Regulation 210
Mitochondrial DNA 269
Gene Regulation in Escherichia coli 211
Microsatellites 269
Levels of Gene Regulation in
Combined Nucleic Acid-Amino Acid
Eukaryotes 211
Phytogenies 272
How Gene Regulation Works 214
Rates of Molecular Change: Molecular
Continuous Variation 216
Clocks 273
Quantitative Trait Loci 216
Regulatory Genes and Their Evolutionary
Mutation Rates 218
Consequences 281
DNA Repair Mechanisms 218
BOX 12-1 Quantitative DNA
Transposons, Horizontal Gene Transfer and
Measurements 260
Selfish DNA 220
BOX 12-2 Molecular Evolution in the Test
Transposons 220
Tube 266
Horizontal Gene Transfer 220
BOX 12-3 Ancient DNA 270
Selfish DNA 221
BOX 12-4 Five or Six Supergroups in the
Randomness of Mutation 222
Eukaryote Tree of Life 276
Genetic Polymorphism: The Widespread Nature
Profile Walter M. Fitch 283
of Variation 223
BOX 10-1 Central Questions Concerning CHAPTER ; ' Genes, Development and
Variation and Variability in Evolution.287
Evolution 198
Eukaryote Development 288
BOX 10-2 Barbara McClintock and the
Development and Evolution 290
Discovery of Transposons 210
Regulation: Genes in Context 292
CHAPTER X 1 Species, Phylogeny and Genetic Control of Embryonic
Classification.228 Patterns 293
Classification and Phylogenetic Homeobox Genes and Conserved Embryonic
Stages 296
Relationships 230
Species Concepts 230 Regulatory Genes and Evolutionary
Morphological Species 23 Change 300
Biological Species 231 Gene Networks and Modularity 301
Evolutionary Species 233 Constraint and Selection 302
CONTENTS vi 1
Phenotypic Plasticity 304
Animals Based on Two Layers and Possessing
Heredity and Developmental
Tissues 373
Constraint 305
Cnidaria and Ctenophora 373
Canalization 307
Homeobox Genes 374
Heterochrony and Allometry 309
Animals Based on Three Germ Layers but No
BOX 13-1 Viruses and Bacteria: Regulation
Coelom 375
and Morphogenesis 290
Platyhelminths and Other Acoelomates 376
BOX 13-2 Modularity 303
Animals Based on Three Germ Layers and a
Coelom 379
Part 4 The Organisms: The Diversity
The Coelom 379
of Life.312 Pseudocoelomates (Aschelminthes) 380
Coelomates: Protostomes and
Deuterostomes 380
Evolution of Plants and Fungi .314
Segmentation 382
Terrestrial Algae 316
Supergroups 383
Origins of Land Plants 318
Mollusks 384
Bryophytes 319 Annelids 386
Sexual Reproduction, Meiosis and Alternation Arthropods 389
of Generations 320 Echinoderms 394
Sexual Reproduction 320 BOX 16-1 Ecdysozoa and
Evolution of Meiosis 321 Lophotrochozoa 368
Alternation of Generations 321 BOX 16-2 Do Sponges Have Tissues? 372
Similar or Different 322 BOX 16-3 Evolutionary Solutions to Problems
Early Vascular Plants 323 of Locomotion 376
Ferns 323 BOX 16-4 Kin Selection and Haplodiploidy in
From Swamps to Uplands 327 Social Insects 392
Angiosperms 327
CHAPTER 1 Chordate and Vertebrate Origins 398
Self-Sterility and Double Fertilization 330
Hypotheses of the Origin of
Evolution of Angiosperms 331
Vertebrates 399
Semiarid Mountains or Tropical
Lowlands? 332 An Annelid-Arthropod Origin 400
Ancestry 334 Echinoderm Affinities 401
Cephalochordates 403
Fungi 337
BOX 14-1 Coevolution of Plants and Urochordates 405
Insects 334 Larval Evolution: Paedomorphosis and Neoteny
406
CHAP; ER 1 5 Animals and Their Origin .... 343
Finding the Larval Ancestor 408
Multicellular Organisms Arise 344 Conodonts 410
Burgess Shale Fauna 344 Fossil Jawless Vertebrates 411
A Cambrian "Explosion"? 347 Extant Jawless Vertebrates 412
Explanations of the Cambrian
Evolution of Jawed Vertebrates (Gnathostomes)
Explosion 347
413
From Unicellularity to Metazoans 351
Pharyngeal Gill Arch Origin of Jaws 415
Consequences of Multicellularity 352
Non-Pharyngeal Gill Arch Origin of
Increase in Complexity 352 Jaws 416
Developmental Mechanisms 357
Evolution of Cartilaginous and Bony Fishes
Concluding Comments 360
418
BOX 15-1 The Ediacaran Fauna 349
Fins 418
BOX 15-2 Snowball Earth 352
Bony Fish 419
Profile James W. Valentine 361
Ray-Finned Fish (Actinopterygians) 420
16
CHAPTER Evolution among the Lobe-Finned Fishes (Sarcopterygians) 420
BOX 17-1 Hox Genes and Vertebrate
Invertebrates.363
Origins 404
Features and Origins 365 BOX 17-2 Latent Homology 405
Animals Composed of Cells and BOX 17-3 Pharyngeal Jaws in Cichlid
Prototissues 368 Fishes 421
Sponges 368
CHAP1 ER 18 From Water to Land to Air: Amphibians
Placozoa 370
Mesozoans 373 and Amniote.425