STAYING ALIVE: THE EXPERIENCE OF IN EXTREMIS LEADERSHIP by DEIRDRE DIXON ...

182 Pages·2014·1.49 MB·English

by  Deirdre Dixon

STAYING ALIVE: THE EXPERIENCE OF IN EXTREMIS LEADERSHIP

by
DEIRDRE DIXON

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements
For the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

Dissertation Committee:
Richard Boland, Jr. Ph.D., Case Western Reserve University
Gary Hunter, Ph.D., Case Western Reserve University
James Gaskin, Ph.D., Brigham Young University
Michael Weeks, Ph.D., University of Tampa

Weatherhead School of Management
Designing Sustainable Systems
CASE WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY

May, 2014
CASE WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

We hereby approve the thesis/dissertation of

Deirdre Dixon

candidate for the Doctor of Philosophy degree*.

(signed) Richard Boland, Jr.

(chair of the committee)

Gary Hunter

James Gaskin

Michael Weeks

(date) February 17, 2014

* We also certify that written approval has been obtained for any proprietary material
contained therein.
© Copyright by Deirdre Dixon, 2014
All Rights Reserved
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DEDICATION
To my family, husband Paul, for his unwavering and endless supply of positivity and
support. Caneel, my oldest and my sunshine who has taken over much responsibility for
the family since I first began this process. You have never shied away from adventure
and your leadership of the kids has been invaluable. Carlin, the middle child, with the
kind and generous heart, your industriousness and hard work helped the family make it
through when mom was working on her homework—you even learned to cook along the
way. Cowboy, the youngest, certainly learned patience through the process. I’m not sure
many kids could have waited four years counting down the days to get a dog. It’s finally
here; the “dog paper” is done! To my parents, thanks for instilling in me my love of
learning, and my in-laws for showing me what a successful professor looks like!

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... ix
List of Figures ......................................................................................................................x
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................ xi
Abstract ............................................................................................................................ xiii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................1
Leadership in Extremis ................................................................................................. 1
Brief Leadership Theory Background .................................................................... 2
Research Gap ................................................................................................................ 3
Motivation for Research ............................................................................................... 4
Research Questions ....................................................................................................... 6
Research Method .......................................................................................................... 6
Research Findings ......................................................................................................... 9

CHAPTER 2: BACKGROUND AND LITERATURE Overview ...................................11
In Extremis Context .................................................................................................... 11
Organizational Citizenship Behavior .................................................................... 11
Presentation of Self ............................................................................................... 12
Sense-making ........................................................................................................ 13
Situation Awareness.............................................................................................. 13
Self-Efficacy ......................................................................................................... 14
Research Design.......................................................................................................... 15

CHAPTER 3: MAKING SENSE WHEN IT MATTERS MOST: LEADERSHIP IN
EXTREMIS .........................................................................................................................20
Preface......................................................................................................................... 20
Introduction ................................................................................................................. 20
Literature Review........................................................................................................ 23
Context .................................................................................................................. 23
Sense-making ........................................................................................................ 24
Sensegiving ........................................................................................................... 26
Communication Theory ........................................................................................ 28
Methods....................................................................................................................... 29
Methodological Approach .................................................................................... 29
Sample................................................................................................................... 30
Data Collection ..................................................................................................... 31
Data Analysis ........................................................................................................ 32
Findings....................................................................................................................... 33
Finding 1 ............................................................................................................... 33
Finding 2 ............................................................................................................... 35
Finding 3 ............................................................................................................... 36
Finding 4 ............................................................................................................... 38
Finding 5 ............................................................................................................... 39
Discussion ................................................................................................................... 40
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Limitations .................................................................................................................. 48
Implications for Practice and Future Research ........................................................... 49

CHAPTER 4: LEADING IN COMBAT: THE ROLE OF SITUATION AWARENESS
AND PERCEIVED CONTROL DURING IN EXTREMIS SITUATIONS ......................52
Preface......................................................................................................................... 52
Introduction ................................................................................................................. 52
Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................... 54
In Extremis Outcomes ........................................................................................... 54
In Extremis Context .............................................................................................. 55
Situation Awareness and Appraisal ...................................................................... 56
Training/Experience .............................................................................................. 57
Self-Efficacy ......................................................................................................... 58
Stress Control ........................................................................................................ 58
Research Model and Hypotheses ................................................................................ 59
Research Design and Methods .................................................................................... 62
Measurement of Research Variables .................................................................... 62
Construct Operationalizations ............................................................................... 63
Sample................................................................................................................... 65
Statistical Analysis ................................................................................................ 66
Measurement Model ............................................................................................. 67
Adequacy ........................................................................................................ 67
Reliability ........................................................................................................ 68
Validity ........................................................................................................... 69
Validity and Reliability of Latent Constructs ....................................................... 69
Common Method Bias (CMB) ....................................................................... 70
Structural Model ................................................................................................... 70
Findings....................................................................................................................... 71
Discussion ................................................................................................................... 72
Limitations .................................................................................................................. 77
Implications for Practice and Future Research ........................................................... 78

CHAPTER 5: IN EXTREMIS LEADERSHIP: FULL MENTAL JACKET ....................80
Preface......................................................................................................................... 80
Introduction ................................................................................................................. 81
Background ................................................................................................................. 82
Flexibility .............................................................................................................. 84
Sense of Duty ........................................................................................................ 84
Self-Sacrifice......................................................................................................... 85
Altruism ................................................................................................................ 85
Self-Esteem ........................................................................................................... 86
Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................... 86
In Extremis Context .............................................................................................. 86
Situational Leadership .......................................................................................... 88
Interdependency between the Leader and the Context ......................................... 89
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Self-Efficacy ......................................................................................................... 90
Situation Awareness.............................................................................................. 91
Characteristics ....................................................................................................... 92
Flexibility ........................................................................................................ 92
Sense of duty ................................................................................................... 93
Self-esteem ...................................................................................................... 93
Research Model and Hypotheses ................................................................................ 94
Research Design and Methods .................................................................................... 97
Measurement of Research Variables .................................................................... 97
Construct operationalization ........................................................................... 97
Controls ........................................................................................................... 98
Sample................................................................................................................... 99
Statistical Analysis .............................................................................................. 101
Measurement Model ........................................................................................... 101
Adequacy ...................................................................................................... 102
Reliability ...................................................................................................... 102
Validity ......................................................................................................... 102
Validity and Reliability of Latent Constructs ..................................................... 103
Common method bias (CMB) ....................................................................... 104
Structural Model ................................................................................................. 104
Findings..................................................................................................................... 105
Discussion ................................................................................................................. 106
Limitations ................................................................................................................ 110
Implications for Practice and Future Research ......................................................... 112

CHAPTER 6: INTEGRATED FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION .................................114
Sense-making and Sense-giving ............................................................................... 117
Situation Awareness and Training ............................................................................ 118
Mental Flexibility...................................................................................................... 120
In Extremis Occupations ........................................................................................... 122

CHAPTER 7: IMPLICATIONS, CONTRIBUTIONS, LIMITATIONS and FUTURE
RESEARCH .....................................................................................................................126
Implications and Contributions ................................................................................. 126
Limitations ................................................................................................................ 127
Constructs ........................................................................................................... 127
Methods............................................................................................................... 128
Sample................................................................................................................. 128
Future Research ........................................................................................................ 129

APPENDIXES
Appendix A: Interview Protocol ...............................................................................132
Appendix B: Major Article Literature Review .........................................................134
Appendix C: Summary of Original Measures ..........................................................136
Appendix D: Factor Correlation Matrix ...................................................................138
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Appendix E CFA.......................................................................................................139
Appendix F: Model in AMOS ..................................................................................140
Appendix G: Summary of Original Measures ...........................................................141
Appendix H: CFA ......................................................................................................142
Appendix I: Cronbach’s Alpha and Factor Correlation Matrix .................................143
Appendix J: Model Fit and Occupation SEM ...........................................................144
Appendix K: Validity and Reliability of Latent Constructs ......................................146
Appendix L: Adequacy Statistics..............................................................................147

REFERENCES ................................................................................................................148

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Literature Overview ........................................................................................... 15
Table 2: Research Questions and Approach .................................................................... 19
Table 3: Sample ............................................................................................................... 31
Table 4: Sense-making and Sense-giving Occur Simultaneously ................................... 34
Table 5: Importance of Showing Calmness/Confidence ................................................. 37
Table 6: Sensegiving by Subordinates and Leader’s Reactions ...................................... 38
Table 7: Training Examples ............................................................................................. 40
Table 8: Data Structure .................................................................................................... 50
Table 9: Sample Characteristics ....................................................................................... 66
Table 10: Pattern Matrixa ................................................................................................. 68
Table 11: Cronbach’s Alpha ............................................................................................ 68
Table 12: Measurement Model Fit ................................................................................... 69
Table 13: Validity and Reliability of Latent Constructs .................................................. 70
Table 14: Common Method Bias with Common Latent Factor Results .......................... 70
Table 15: Model Fit for Structural Model ........................................................................ 71
Table 16: Hypothesis Summary Table ............................................................................. 72
Table 17: Sample Characteristics ................................................................................... 100
Table 18: Pattern Matrix ................................................................................................ 102
Table 19: Measurement Model Fit ................................................................................. 103
Table 20: Model Fit for Structural Model ...................................................................... 104
Table 21: Hypothesis Summary Table ........................................................................... 106
Table 22: Differences between Protectors and Vanquishers ......................................... 125

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Overall Study Flow ............................................................................................ 8
Figure 2: Procedural Diagram .......................................................................................... 18
Figure 3: Punctuated In Extremis Interaction .................................................................. 48
Figure 4: Military Model for In Extremis Outcomes ....................................................... 62
Figure 5: Hazardous Occupation Model .......................................................................... 96
Figure 6: Dissertation Flow ........................................................................................... 115
Figure J1: Military SEM ................................................................................................ 144
Figure J2: Fire Fighter SEM .......................................................................................... 144
Figure J3: Law Enforcement SEM ................................................................................ 145

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