State Control over Private Military and Security Companies in Armed Conflict PDF
Preview State Control over Private Military and Security Companies in Armed Conflict
STATE CONTROL OVER PRIVATE MILITARY AND SECURITY COMPANIES IN ARMED CONFLICT The past two decades have witnessed the rapid proliferation of private militaryandsecuritycompanies(PMSCs)inarmedconflictsaroundthe world,withPMSCsparticipatingin,forexample,offensivecombat,pris- onerinterrogationandtheprovisionofadviceandtraining.Theextensive outsourcingofmilitaryandsecurityactivitieshaschallengedconventional conceptionsofthestateastheprimaryholderofcoercivepowerandraised concernsaboutthereductioninstatecontrolovertheuseofviolence. HannahTonkincriticallyanalysestheinternationalobligationsonthree keystates–thehiringstate,thehomestateandthehoststateofaPMSC– and identifies the circumstances in which PMSC misconduct may give rise to state responsibility. This analysis will facilitate the assessment of state responsibility in cases of PMSC misconduct and set standards to guide states in developing their domestic laws and policies on private security. hannahtonkincompletedamastersanddoctorateininternationallaw attheUniversityofOxfordonaRhodesScholarship,afterhavingprevi- ouslycompleteddegreesinscienceandlawattheUniversityofAdelaide, Australia.ShehasworkedasalawyerattheUNInternationalCriminal TribunalfortheformerYugoslaviainTheHagueandtaughtinternational lawattheUniversityofOxford.SheisnowalawyerattheUNInternational CriminalTribunalforRwandainArusha,Tanzania. cambridgestudiesininternationalandcomparativelaw Establishedin1946,thisseriesproduceshighqualityscholarshipinthefieldsof publicandprivateinternationallawandcomparativelaw.Althoughthese aredistinctlegalsub-disciplines,developmentssince1946confirmtheir interrelations. Comparativelawisincreasinglyusedasatoolinthemakingoflawatnational, regionalandinternationallevels.Privateinternationallawisnowoftenaffectedby internationalconventions,andtheissuesfacedbyclassicalconflictsrulesare frequentlydealtwithbysubstantiveharmonisationoflawunderinternational auspices.Mixedinternationalarbitrations,especiallythoseinvolvingstateeconomic activity,raisemixedquestionsofpublicandprivateinternationallaw,whileinmany fields(suchastheprotectionofhumanrightsanddemocraticstandards,investment guaranteesandinternationalcriminallaw)internationalandnationalsystemsinteract. Nationalconstitutionalarrangementsrelatingto‘foreignaffairs’,andtothe implementationofinternationalnorms,areafocusofattention. TheSerieswelcomesworksofatheoreticalorinterdisciplinarycharacter, andthosefocusingonthenewapproachestointernationalorcomparativelaw orconflictsoflaw.Studiesofparticularinstitutionsorproblemsareequallywelcome, asaretranslationsofthebestworkpublishedinotherlanguages. GeneralEditors JamesCrawfordSCFBA WhewellProfessorofInternationalLaw,FacultyofLaw, UniversityofCambridge JohnS.BellFBA ProfessorofLaw,FacultyofLaw,UniversityofCambridge Alistofbooksintheseriescanbefoundattheendofthisvolume. STATE CONTROL OVER PRIVATE MILITARY AND SECURITY COMPANIES IN ARMED CONFLICT HANNAH TONKIN cambridgeuniversitypress Cambridge,NewYork,Melbourne,Madrid,CapeTown, Singapore,Sa˜oPaulo,Delhi,Tokyo,MexicoCity CambridgeUniversityPress TheEdinburghBuilding,CambridgeCB28RU,UK PublishedintheUnitedStatesofAmericabyCambridgeUniversityPress,NewYork www.cambridge.org Informationonthistitle:www.cambridge.org/9781107008014 (cid:2)C HannahTonkin2011 Thispublicationisincopyright.Subjecttostatutoryexception andtotheprovisionsofrelevantcollectivelicensingagreements, noreproductionofanypartmaytakeplacewithoutthewritten permissionofCambridgeUniversityPress. Firstpublished2011 PrintedintheUnitedKingdomattheUniversityPress,Cambridge AcataloguerecordforthispublicationisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData Tonkin,Hannah,1981– Statecontroloverprivatemilitaryandsecuritycompaniesinarmedconflict/ HannahTonkin. p. cm.–(Cambridgestudiesininternationalandcomparativelaw;80) Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex. ISBN978-1-107-00801-4(hardback) 1.Combatantsandnoncombatants(Internationallaw) 2.Mercenarytroops– Legalstatus,laws,etc. 3.Privatemilitarycompanies–Lawandlegislation 4.Privatesecurityservices–Lawandlegislation I.Title. KZ6418.T66 2011 355.3(cid:3)5–dc22 2011013507 ISBN978-1-107-00801-4Hardback CambridgeUniversityPresshasnoresponsibilityforthepersistenceor accuracyofURLsforexternalorthird-partyinternetwebsitesreferredto inthispublication,anddoesnotguaranteethatanycontentonsuch websitesis,orwillremain,accurateorappropriate. CONTENTS Acknowledgements pageviii Listofabbreviations x Tableofcases xii Tableofstatutes xix Tableofinternationaltreatiesandconventions xxi Introduction 1 1 Theprivatesecurityindustryuncovered 6 1.1 Historyofprivatemilitaryactorsininternational relations 7 1.2 Objectionstoprivateforce,mercenariesandmodern PMSCs 17 1.3 Thespectrumofprivatemilitaryandsecurity activitytoday 28 1.4 WhatarePMSCsandwhatdotheydo? 33 1.5 Conclusion 52 2 Stateobligationsandstateresponsibility 54 2.1 Thenatureofinternationalobligationsand conditionsforbreach 55 2.2 Theattributionofprivatemisconducttothestate 57 2.3 States’obligationstotakepositivestepsto controlPMSCs 59 2.4 Aframeworkforanalysingduediligenceobligations 64 2.5 Circumstancesprecludingwrongfulness 75 2.6 Consequencesofstateresponsibility 76 v vi contents 2.7 Conclusion 78 3 TheattributionofPMSCconducttothehiringstate 80 3.1 PMSCsformingpartofthearmedforces 81 3.2 PMSCsempoweredbylawtoexercisegovernmental authority 99 3.3 PMSCsactingunderstateinstructions,direction orcontrol 113 3.4 Conclusion 121 4 Obligationsofthehoststate 123 4.1 ObligationstocontrolPMSCsunderinternational humanitarianlaw 124 4.2 ObligationstocontrolPMSCsunderhuman rightslaw 141 4.3 Howimmunityagreementscanunderminehoststate controloverPMSCs 166 4.4 Conclusion 170 5 Obligationsofthehiringstate 172 5.1 Constraintsonstates’abilitytohirePMSCsin armedconflict? 173 5.2 ObligationstocontrolPMSCsunderinternational humanitarianlaw 187 5.3 ObligationstocontrolPMSCsunderhumanrights law 202 5.4 Conclusion 227 6 Obligationsofthehomestate 229 6.1 Generalobligationtopreventprivateactsharmfulto otherstates? 230 6.2 ObligationtopreventPMSCinterventioninto otherstates 233 contents vii 6.3 ObligationstocontrolPMSCsunderthelawof neutrality 243 6.4 ObligationstocontrolPMSCsunderinternational humanitarianlaw 254 6.5 ObligationstocontrolPMSCsunderhuman rightslaw 256 6.6 Conclusion 258 Conclusion 260 Bibliography 264 Index 294 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Icouldnothaveproducedthisbookwithouttheassistanceandsupport of others. It began life as a doctoral thesis completed at the University of Oxford under the supervision of Dapo Akande and Professor Guy Goodwin-Gill.Dapo’ssharpintellect,closeattentiontodetailandexten- siveknowledgeofinternationallawundoubtedlypushedmetoproduce a better thesis and book. He regularly went beyond the call of duty by providing feedback from the other side of the world, whether by email betweenYaleandTheHagueorbyskypebetweenOxfordandAustralia, andhisflexibilityandtirelessavailabilityenabledmetopursuearangeof endeavourswhilestillmaintainingastronglevelofsupervisionthrough- outmydoctorate.Iamalsoextremelygratefultomysupervisorduringthe finaltermofmydoctorate,ProfessorGuyGoodwin-Gill,whoinvesteda considerableamountoftimeandenergytocomprehendtheentireproject atalatestage.Hisfeedbackonthefinaldraftsofmythesisandhisgeneral adviceontheroadtopublicationwereinvaluable. DrSarahPercyandDrRogerO’Keefeexaminedmymastersthesisatthe UniversityofOxford,andtheirexactingstandardshelpedmetoimprove my work and develop it into a doctoral proposal. My doctoral thesis examiners, Professors Vaughan Lowe and Nigel White, also provided helpfulcomments,andIamgratefulfortheirassistance. The Rhodes Scholarship funded my studies at Oxford for three full years.IwillforeverbeindebtedtotheRhodesTrustforthefinancialsup- port,self-confidenceandphenomenalprofessionalandpersonaloppor- tunities that the Scholarship provided. I was also fortunate to receive a WingateScholarshipduringthefinalstagesofmydoctorate. PartsofChapters3,4and5ofthisbookdevelopworkthatappearedin ‘CommonArticle1:AMinimumYardstickforRegulatingPrivateMilitary and Security Companies’ (2009) 22 Leiden Journal of International Law 779–99.Igratefullyacknowledgethejournal’spermissiontoreprintthe relevantpassages. viii acknowledgements ix DuringmytimeatOxford,Iwasluckytohavethesupportofnumerous friends,colleaguesandfamilymembers.Iwouldparticularlyliketothank thosewhoreviewedvarioussectionsofthedraft,namely,DavidTonkin, DrJeniWhalan,DrWillFeldmanandDrCarstenHoppe.Finally,Iwould liketothankmyfamilyforthetirelessloveandsupportthattheyprovided throughoutmymanyyearsofstudy.
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