Spacecraft Thermal Control Handbook, Volume 2: Cryogenics (Aerospace Press) PDF
Preview Spacecraft Thermal Control Handbook, Volume 2: Cryogenics (Aerospace Press)
Spacecraft Thermal Control Handbook Volume :1I Cryogenics Martin Donabedian Editor The Aerospace Press • 1E Segundo, California American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc. ° Reston, Virginia The Aerospace Press 2350 E. 1E Segundo Boulevard 1E Segundo, California 90245-4691 American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc. 1801 Alexander Bell Drive Reston, Virginia 20191-4344 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Spacecraft thermal control handbook / edited by David G. Gilmore. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1-884989-14-4 .v( 2) .1 Space vehicles--Thermodynamics. .2 Space vehicles--Cooling. I. Gilmore, David G. TL900 .$595 2002 629.47'4--dc21 2002013535 Copyright © 2003 by The Aerospace Corporation All fights reserved Printed in the United States of America. No part of this publication may be repro- duced, distributed, or transmitted in any form orb y any means, or stored in a data- base or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publishers. Data and information appearing in this book are for informational purposes only. The publishers and the authors are not responsible for any injury or damage result- ing from use or reliance, nor do the publishers or the authors warrant that use or reliance will be free from privately owned fights. The material in this book was reviewed by the Air Force Space and Missile Sys- tems Center and NASA, and approved for public release. Preface The number of satellite systems that require some form of cryogenic cooling has grown enormously during the last 01 years. The first edition of this handbook, published in 1994, contained one chapter on cryogenic systems; that chapter included about 38 pages. As of this writing, in 2002, the last survey made by The Aerospace Corporation on cryocoolers included nearly 200 pages. With so many engineers, scientists, and technicians working on cryogenic systems for the first time in their careers, the need for a single resource that touched on all the technol- ogies relevant to cryogenics was apparent. When The Aerospace Press decided to revise the Handbook and expand the cryogenics section, it quickly became clear that only an entire separate book could adequately cover the subject. Thus, Spacecraft Thermal Control Handbook, Volume II: Cryogenics was con- ceived. The purpose of the book is to provide useful information to novices as well as to experienced engineers, scientists, and techniciansmto help all of them in the design, analysis, integration, testing, and operation of a variety of instruments, sen- sors, and other devices that must be cooled to cryogenic temperatures. To properly address the necessary topics, industry experts were asked to write or contribute to chapters coveting their expertise. The following brief descriptions of the chapters and their contents convey the impressive scope of the material in this volume. The book begins with an overview of the types of cryogenic cooling systems (Chapter .)1 Following this introduction, Part 1 (Chapters 2 through 4) covers stored expendable systems; it includes chapters on liquid and solid stored cryo- gens and open-cycle ("blow-down") Joule-Thomson systems, and it includes the principles of operation, fluid properties, and illustrations of historic operating sys- tems. The subject of radiant coolers is covered in Part 2 (Chapters 5 and 6). Chap- ter 5 discusses radiator principles and heat balance and goes through the design process, while Chapter 6 summarizes radiant cooler development, reviews histori- cal system characteristics, and provides a simple method to estimate cold patch size and overall cooler dimensions. Recently, there has been an explosion of applications requiring long-life mechanical refrigerators ("cryocoolers") in fields such as astronomy, Earth obser- vation, weather satellites, missile defense, infrared surveillance, and superconduc- tivity. More than three dozen organizations worldwide are involved in the develop- ment of cryocoolers. As a result, the largest portion of the book, Part 3 (Chapters 7 through 13), has been devoted to this subject. Chapter 7 provides a brief review of refrigeration thermodynamic cycles, identi- fies practical cycles for spacecraft application, gives overviews of the field of available coolers and the development process, and briefly summarizes the flight history. The subject of regenerative coolers (Stifling and pulse tube), including their cycles, operating principles, design implementation, performance, and illus- trations of current devices (including flight electronics) is discussed in Chapter .8 A detailed discussion of reverse turbo-Brayton cycles, systems, attributes, compo- nent development, and performance is provided in Chapter 9. Hybrid systems, which combine Stirling and JT systems, as well as closed-cycle JT systems using ix Preface mechanical compressors or sorption cycle compression, are covered in Chapter .01 A key issue in successfully using cryocoolers is obtaining data on their perfor- mance with respect to a wide range of parameters including refrigeration perfor- mance, distribution of waste heat, off-state conduction, launch vibration response, cooler-generated vibration, and electromagnetic fields and emissions. These sub- jects are covered in detail in Chapter .11 One of the most difficult issues is the problem of quantifying the reliability or probability of failure of a single unit or the overall reliability of a system with more than one unit. Some approaches to solving these problems are covered in Chapter .21 Successful integration of a cooler into a spacecraft system includes more than load estimation and cryocooler sizing. Heatsinking, structural mounting provisions, operational issues, and elec- trical integration issues are also of great importance. Examples of real integration problems are reviewed in Chapter .31 Overall integration of cryogenic components into a system and ultimate integra- tion of the system into the spacecraft usually creates the major challenges and generates the most problems for any program. This entire subject is covered in Part 4, which comprises Chapters 41 through .81 Chapter 41 covers flexible con- duction links, while Chapter 51 provides details on the use of thermal switches, which may be used to accommodate redundant cryocoolers and minimize off-state conduction heat loads. Two-phase capillary heat transport devices are discussed in Chapter ,61 and the analysis, design, and integration of thermal storage devices used to orbit-average cyclical heat loads are presented in Chapter .71 Overall spacecraft integration issues are summarized in Chapter .81 Cryogenic systems have historically been less reliable than conventional ther- mal control systems, making reliability a topic that requires special treatment. Part 5 (Chapter )91 is dedicated to thermal margins, margin application to cryo- genic systems, estimation of risk, and lessons learned from previous cryogenic systems. The critical nature of the performance of cryogenic systems requires concurrent modeling, analysis, and design, followed by test verification, as illustrated in Part 6. A methodology for conducting preliminary analysis prior to building detailed mathematical models later in the program is provided in Chapter 20 using an infrared sensor as an example. This chapter outlines the analysis process. Chapter 12 presents the critical issues that are addressed during the endurance testing of cryocoolers. Part 7, the last part, provides information about thermophysical properties and emittances of selected materials. Reliable and accurate material property data at cryogenic temperatures are difficult to obtain and are critical to system design, and thus Chapter 22 provides a list of key sources of data for thermophysical properties and specific properties for selected materials at cryogenic temperatures. Chapter 23 includes a compilation of emittances of selected materials, films, and coatings. Martin Donabedian xii Foreword The Aerospace Press is very proud to publish Spacecraft Thermal Control Hand- book, Volume II: Cryogenics, edited by Martin Donabedian. This is a scholarly work with broad appeal, one that can be appreciated by students new to the field as well as highly experienced specialists. Without exception, these essays are valu- able additions to the literature of cryogenics for space applications. Martin was a terrific colleague and an all-around great guy. Unfortunately, he died not long after he completed assembling the manuscript of this book. We are indeed fortunate that he was able to leave as his legacy such an impressive work. Spacecraft Thermal Control Handbook, Volume II: Cryogenics is a fitting com- plement to the first volume in this series. Like that volume, it should prove quite useful to scientists, engineers, and anyone else with a need to learn the discipline of spacecraft thermal control. It is sure to rapidly become the industry standard reference in the increasingly important field of spacecraft cryogenics. David Gilmore Series Editor xiii Contributing Authors N. Abhyankar, Air Albuquerque, Research Force Laboratory, weN Mexico Chapter ,12 Cryocooler Endurance Testing R. C. Bowman Jr., Jet California Institute Propulsion Laboratory, of ,ygolonhceT Pasadena, California Chapter ,01 Closed-Cycle Joule-Thomson Cryocoolers D. Bugby, Swales Aerospace, Beltsville, Maryland Chapter ,41 Flexible Links Conductive Chapter ,51 Cryogenic Thermal Switches Chapter ,61 Cryogenic Devices Transport Heat Chapter ,71 Cryogenic Thermal Units Storage Chapter ,81 Cryogenic Integration System Devices .W Burr, Northrop Grumman Space Redondo Technology, Beach, California Chapter ,8 Systems: Regenerative Stifling Pulse and Tube Cryocoolers L. Crawford, ITT Industries, WaynFeo,r t Indiana Chapter ,5 Radiant Coolers .T .M Davis, Air Albuquerque, Research Force Laboratory, weN Mexico Chapter ,12 Cryocooler Endurance Testing .M Donabedian, Aerospace Corporation, The 1E California Segundo, Chapter ,1 Cryogenic Systems Overview Chapter ,2 Cryogenic Fluid Storage Chapter ,3 Stored Cryogen Solid Systems Chapter ,6 Cryogenic Radiator Designs Comparative Performance and Chapter ,7 Cryocooler Overview Chapter ,91 Thermal Control Margins, Risk Estimation, Lessons and Learned Chapter ,22 Thermophysical Properties of Materials Selected Chapter ,32 Emittance of Selected Materials Temperatures Cryogenic at D. Glaister, Aerospace, Ball Boulder, Colorado Chapter ,02 Cryogenic Analysis Systems B. Kiehl, Aerospace, Ball Boulder, Colorado Chapter ,01 Closed-Cycle Joule-Thomson Cryocoolers R. C. Longsworth, formerly of DPA Cryogenics, Allentown, Pennsylvania Chapter ,4 Open-Cycle Joule-Thomson Coolers .B Marland, Swales Aerospace, Beltsville, Maryland Chapter ,41 Flexible Links Conductive Chapter ,51 Cryogenic Thermal Switches Chapter ,61 Cryogenic Devices Transport Heat Chapter ,71 Cryogenic Thermal Units Storage Chapter ,81 Cryogenic Integration System Devices E. Marquardt, Aerospace, Ball Boulder, Colorado Chapter ,01 Closed-Cycle Joule-Thomson Cryocoolers V'X Contributing Authors G. Mills, Ball Aerospace, Boulder, Colorado Chapter ,02 Cryogenic Systems Analysis R. G. Ross Jr., Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of ,ygolonhceT Pasadena, California Chapter ,11 Cryocooler Performance Characterization Chapter ,21 Cryocooler Reliability and Redundancy Considerations Chapter ,31 Cryocooler Integration Considerations .W L. Swift, Creare Incorporated, Hanover, New Hampshire Chapter ,9 Turbo-Brayton Cryocoolers ivx Contents Preface ........................................................ xi Foreword ..................................................... xiii Contributing Authors ........................................... xv 1 Cryogenic Systems Overview ...................................... 1 Stored-Cryogen Cooling Systems ................................... 2 Cryogenic Radiators ............................................. 5 Cryogenic Refrigerators (Cryocoolers) .............................. 6 traP Cooling Systems Expendable Stored 1 2 Cryogenic Fluid Storage ........................................ 13 Introduction ................................................... 13 Operating Temperatures and Thermodynamics Fundamentals ........... 13 Fluid Storage Methods and Applications ............................ 19 References .................................................... 28 3 Stored Solid Cryogen Systems .................................... 31 Operating Principles ............................................ 31 Temperature Ranges of Use ...................................... 31 Solid Cooler Characteristics and Design Concepts .................... 32 Flight Systems ................................................. 34 4 Open-Cycle Joule-Thomson Coolers ............................... 41 Principles of Operation .......................................... 41 Gas Properties ................................................. 45 Heat Exchanger Design and Performance ............................ 47 Reservoirs .................................................... 47 Other Considerations ........................................... 50 References .................................................... 51 Part 2 Cryogenic Radiators and Radiant Coolers 5 Radiant Coolers ............................................... 55 Radiant Cooler Thermal Balance .................................. 57 Orbital Considerations .......................................... 60 Preliminary Radiant Cooler Design and Analysis ..................... 62 Contamination Control Guidelines ................................. 77 Radiant Cooler Sizing Guidelines .................................. 82 Design Example: Three-Stage Radiant Cooler, Geosynchronous Orbit ..... 83 Contents Design Example: Two-Stage Radiant Cooler, Low Earth Orbit .......... 87 References ................................................... 90 6 Cryogenic Radiator Designs and Comparative Performance .......... 91 Flight Systems ................................................ 91 Thermodynamic Characterization of Radiant Coolers ................ 103 Acronyms .................................................. 115 References .................................................. 116 Part 3 Cryocoolers (Mechanical Refrigerators) 7 Cryocooler Overview ......................................... 121 Principles of Thermodynamics and Ideal Cycles .................... 121 Flight History ............................................... 124 Candidate Cryocoolers with Near-Term Availability ................. 124 Acronyms .................................................. 129 References .................................................. 130 8 Regenerative Systems: Stirling and Pulse Tube Cryocoolers ......... 135 Stirling Coolers .............................................. 135 Pulse Tube Coolers ........................................... 154 Regenerative Cooler Electronic Control Systems .................... 163 Regenerative Cooler Failure Mechanisms ......................... 169 Regenerative Cooler Selection Criteria ............................ 170 Regenerative Cooler Electromagnetic Interference .................. 171 Thermomechanical Considerations ............................... 172 References .................................................. 172 9 Turbo-Brayton Cryocoolers .................................... 175 The Thermodynamic Cycle ..................................... 175 Components ................................................. 178 Development Status ........................................... 182 References .................................................. 185 10 Closed-Cycle Joule-Thomson Cryocoolers ....................... 187 Basic Thermodynamics ........................................ 188 Joule-Thomson Cryocooler Configurations ........................ 189 Joule-Thomson Cryocooler Components .......................... 191 System Descriptions .......................................... 202 Conclusions ................................................. 213 Acknowledgment ............................................. 213 References .................................................. 213 vi stnetnoC 11 Cryocooler Performance Characterization ...................... 217 Introduction ................................................. 217 Cryocooler Refrigeration Performance ............................ 217 Spatial Distribution of Rejected Heat ............................. 226 Coldfinger Off-State Conduction ................................ 229 Drive Resonance Characteristics ................................. 232 Piston Launch-Vibration Response ............................... 238 Cooler Drive Stiction .......................................... 242 Cooler-Generated Vibration .................................... 245 Electromagnetic Fields and Conducted Emissions ................... 250 References .................................................. 260 12 Cryocooler Reliability and Redundancy Considerations ........... 263 Introduction ................................................. 263 Life Test and Flight Operational Data ............................. 263 Subassembly Reliability Prediction ............................... 265 System-Level Reliability Analysis and Prediction ................... 273 Summary and Conclusions ..................................... 281 References .................................................. 283 13 Cryocooler Integration Considerations .......................... 285 Introduction ................................................. 285 Cryogenic Load Estimation and Cryocooler Sizing .................. 285 Cryocooler Heatsinking Considerations ........................... 299 Cold Load Integration Considerations ............................ 303 Cryocooler Structural Mounting Issues ............................ 313 Operational and Electrical Integration Issues ....................... 318 References .................................................. 323 Part 4 Cryogenic Components, Transport, Storage, and Integration 14 Flexible Conductive Links .................................... 327 Design Considerations ......................................... 327 Thermal Analysis Fundamentals ................................. 337 Mechanical Analysis Fundamentals .............................. 338 Manufacturing Techniques ..................................... 340 Thermal Testing ............................................. 342 Mechanical Testing ........................................... 343 Existing Designs ............................................. 343 References .................................................. 346 15 Cryogenic Thermal Switches .................................. 347 Design Considerations ......................................... 347 Thermal Analysis Fundamentals ................................. 358 vii
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