Space Mission Analysis and Design.

504 Pages·2007·27.9 MB·English

Space Mission
THE SPACE TECHNOLOGY LmRARY
Published jointly by Microcosm Press and Kluwer Academic Publishers Analysis and Design.
An Introduction to Mission Designfor Geostationary Satellites, J. J. Poeba
Space Mission Analysis and Design, 1st edition, James R. Wertz and Wiley J. Larson
Third Edition
"'Space Mission Analysis and Design, 2nd edition. Wiley J. Larson and James R. Wertz
*Space Mission Analysis and Design Workbook. Wiley J. Larson and James R. Wertz
Handbook ofG eostationary Orbits. E. M. Soop
*Spacecrajt Structures and Mechanisms, From Coru:ept to Launch, Thomas P. Sarafm Edited by
Spaceflight Ll/e Support and Biospherics, Peter Eckart
Wiley J. Larson
*Reducing Space Mission Cost, James R. Wertz and Wiley J. Larson
The Logic ofM icros pace, Rick Fleeter United States Air Force Academy
Space Marketing: A European Perspective, Walter A. R. Peeters
and
Fundamentals ofA strodynamics and Applications, 2nd edition, David A. Vallado
Mission Geometry; Orbit and Constellation Design and Management, James R. Wertz James R. Wertz
Influence ofP sychological Factors on Product Development, Eginaldo Shima Kamata
Microcosm, Inc.
Essential Spaceflight Dynamics and Magnetospherlcs, Boris Rauschenbakh,
Michael Ovchinnikov, and Susan McKenna-lawlor
Space Psychology and Psychiatry, Nick Kanas and Dietrich Manuy . Coordination by
Fundamentals ofS pace Medicine. Gilles Cl~ment Douglas Kirkpatrick, United States Air Force Academy
Donna Klungle, Microcosm, Inc.
·A1so In the DoDINASA Space Technology Series (Managing EdItor Wiley J. Larson)
The Space Technology Library Editorial Board ThIs book is published as part of the Space Teclmology Series, a coopmtive activity of the
UDited Slates Department of Defeose. and National AeronaUlics and Space AdmiDistration.
Managing Editor: James R. Wertz. Microcosm, Iru:., E1 Segundo, CA
Editorial Board: Val A. Chobotov, The Aerospace Corporation (retired)
MIchael L. DeLoreuzo, Uniled States Air Force Academy
Space Technology Library
Roland Dod,International Space University, Strasbourg, France
Robert B. Giffen, United States Air Force Academy (retired)
WOey J. Larson, United Stales Air Force Academy Published Jointly by
Tom Logsdon, Rockwell International (retired)
Microcosm Press
Landis Markley, Goddard Space Flight Center
E1 Segundo, California
Robert G. Melton, Pennsylvania State University
Keiken Ninomfya, InstiJute ofS pace & Astronautical Scieru:e, Japan
Jebanglr J. Pocha, Marra Marconi Space, Stevenage, England
Malcolm D. Shuster, University ofF lorida
K1uwer Academic PubUsbers
Gael Squibb, Jet Propulsion Laboratory
Dordrecbt I Boston I London
Martin Sweeting, University ofS U"ey, England
Table of Contents
List of Authors Ix
ThIrd Edition
Preface xvii
Library of Congress CataJoging-in-PubUcation Data
1. The Space MIssion Analysis and Design Process 1
1.1 Introduction and Overview 1
A C.I.P. Catalogue record for this book is available from
the Library of Congress. 1.2 The Space Mission Life Cycle 7
1.3 Step 1: Definition of Mission Objectives 12
ISBN 1-881883-10-8 (pb) (acid-free paper) 1.4 Step 2: Preliminary Estimate of Mission Needs, Requirements,
ISBN 0-7923-5901-1 (hb) (acid-free paper) and Constraints 15
CUller photo ofE arth from Space: V'1eW of /ifrlca and the Inditm OceQII taken in Dec. 1972, by Apollo 17 2. Mission Characterization 19
the last of the Apollo mlssUms to explore the Moon. Photo courtesy of NASA. • 2.1 Step 3: Identifying Alternative Mission Concepts 21
CUller design by JeQlline Newcomb and Joy Saktzguchi. 2.2 Step 4: Identifying Alternative Mission Architectures 32
2.3 Step 5: Identifying System Drivers 37
2.4 Step 6: Characterizing the Mission Architecture 38
Published jointly by 3. Mission Evaluation 47
Microcosm Press 3.1 Step 7: Identification of Critical Requirements 48
401 Coral Circle, E1 Segundo, CA 90245-4622 USA
3.2 Mission Analysis 49
and
K1uwer Academic Publishers, 3.3 Step 8: Mission Utility 59'
P.O. Box 17, 3300 AA Dordrecht, The Netherlands. 3.4 Step 9: Mission Concept Selection 69
K1uwer Academic Publishers incorporates 4. Requirements Definition 73
the pubIishing programmes of 4.1 Role of ReqUirements in System Development 74
D. Reidel, Martinus Nijhoff, Dr_ W. Junk and MTP Press. 4.2 Requirements Analysis and Performance Budgeting 80
Sold and distributed in the USA and Canada 4.3 Requirements Documentation and Specifications 90
by Microcosm, Inc. 4.4 Summary: The Steps to a Requirements Baseline 93
401 Coral Circle, El Segundo, CA 90245-4622 USA
and Kluwer Academic Publishers, 5. Space MIssion Geometry 95
101 Philip Drive. Norwell. MA 02061 USA 5.1 Introduction to Geometry on the Celestial Sphere 98
5.2 Earth Geometry Viewed from Space 110
In all other countries, sold and distributed
by K1uwer Academic Publishers Group, 5.3 Apparent Motion of Satellites for an Observer on the Earth 117
P.O. Box 322, 3300 AA Dordrecht, The Netherlands. 5.4 Development of Mapping and Pointing Budgets 123
Printed on acifJ-free paper 6. Introduction to Astrodynamlcs 131
6.1 Keplerian Orbits 132
All Rights Reserved 6.2 Orbit Perturbations 141
<0 1m Mlcrccosm, Inc. and WJ . Larson
Seventh Printing, 200S 6.3 Orbit Maneuvering 146
No part of the material protected by this copyright notice may be reproduced or 6.4 Launch Windows 153
utilized In any form or by any means, eleetronic or mechanical 6.5 Orbit Maintenance 155
Inc~ding photocopying, recording, or by any information storage ~
relJieval system, without written permission from the copyright owner.
PrInted In the United Slates of Ametice v

vill Table of Contents
21. Limits on Mission Design
821
21.1 Law and Policy Considerations
821
21.2 Orbital Debris-A Space Hazard List of Authors
840
22. Design of Low-Cost Spacecraft
853
22.1 Designing Low-Cost Space Systems Henry Apgar. Vice President, MCR International, Inc., Thousand Oaks, California.
858
22.2 Small Space Systems Capabilities and Applications M.B.A., Northeastern University; B.S. (Electrical Engineering), Rutgers University.
863
22.3 Applying Miniature Satellite Technology to FireSat Chapter 2~ost Modeling.
869
22.4 Scaling from Large to Small Systems
871 David A. Bearden. Senior Project Engineer, Corporate Business Division, The Aero
22.5 Economics of Low-Cost Space Systems
873 space Corporation, El Segundo, California. Ph.D., M.S. (Aerospace Engineering),
22.6 Annotated Bibliography on Low-Cost Space Systems
881 University of Southern California; B.S. (Mechanical Engineering), University of
23. Applying th~ Space Mission Analysis and Design Utah. Chapter 20-Cost Modeling.
883
23.1 Applymg SMAD to Later Mission Phases
884
23.2 Lessons Learned from Existing Space Programs Robert Bell. Mission Analyst, Microcosm, Inc., Torrance, California. M.S. (Aero
888
23.3 Future Trends space Engineering), University of Southern California; B.S. (Aerospace Engineering),
889 University of Southern California. Appendix F-Units and Conversion Factors.
Richard T.Berget. Program Director, BF Goodrich Aerospace, Data Systems Divi
APPENDICES
sion, Albuquerque, New Mexico. M.S., B.S. (Electrical Engineering), University of.
Appendix A. Mass Di$tribution for Selected Satellites New Mexico. Section 11.3-Command and Data Handling. .
894
Appendix B. Astronautical and Astrophysical Data
897 J. B. Blake. Director, Space Sciences Department, Space and Environment Tech
Appendix C. Elliptical Orbit Equations nology Center, The Aerospace Corporation, El Segundo, California. Ph.D., M.S.
902 (physics), University of Illinois; B.S. (Engineering Physics), University of Illinois.
Appendix D. Spherical Geometry Section 8. I-The Space Environment.
904
~ppendix E. Universal Time and Julian Dates 913 Daryl G. Boden. Associate Professor of Aerospace Engineering, U.S. Naval Acad
\ppendix F. Units and Conversion Factors emy, Annapolis, Maryland. Ph.D.(Aeronautical and Astronautical Engineering),
919
University of Illinois; M.S. (Astronautical Engineering), Air Force Institute of
[ndex
929 Technology; B.S. (Aerospace Engineering), University of Colorado. Chapter
6-Introduction to Astrodynamics. .
NSIDE FRONT COVER William R. Britton. Mechanisms Section Manager, Space Systems, Lockheed Martin
Astronautics, Denver, Colorado. B.S. (Mechanical Engineering), Drexel University.
rundamental Physical Constants
Inside Front Cover Section 11.6-Structures and Mechanisms.
'pace8ight Constants
Inside Front Cover
Robert F. Brodsky. Chief Engineer, Microcosm, Inc., Torrance, California. Adjunct
ndex to Process Charts
Page Facing Inside Front Cover Professor of Aerospace Engineering, University of Southern California. Sc.D.
(Engineering), New York University; M.Aeron. Engineering, New York University;
M.S. (Mathematics), University of New Mexico; B.M.E., Cornell University.
NSIDE REAR COVER Chapter 9-Space Payload Design and Sizing.
:arth Satellite Parameters
Inside Rear Pages John B. Carraway. Principal Engineer, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena,
California. B.S. (Electrical Engineering), Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Chapter 14-Mission Operations.
Ix
1
x List of Authors List of Authors xi
Bruce Chesley. Small Satellite Program Manager and Assistant Professor of Astro L. Jane Hansen. President, HRP Systems, Torrance, California. M.B.A., Pepperdine
nautics, U.S. Air Force Academy, Colorado Springs, Colorado. Ph.D. (Aerospace University School of Business and Management; B.S. (Applied Mathematics), Cali
En~n~ng), University o~ Colorado, Boulder; M.S. (Aerospace Engineering), fornia Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo. Chapter 16-Spacecraft Com
UruVerslty of Texas at Austin; B.S. (Aerospace Engineering), University of Notre puter Systems.
Dame. Chapter 9-Space Payload Design and Sizing.
Brian E. Hardt Senior Project Engineer, The Aerospace Corporation, EI Segundo.
Jo~ T: Collins. . Sy.stem Engineer, Microcosm, Inc. B.S. (Aerospace Engineering), California. M.S. (Mechanical Engineering), University of D1inois at Urbana-Cham
Uruverslty of illmOls (UIUC); B.S. (Astronomy), University of illinois (UIUC). paign; B.S. (Mechanical Engineering), University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
Section 20.5-FireSat Example. Section lIS-Thermal.
Ric~ S. Davies. Technical Staff, Stanford Telecommunications, Inc., Santa Clara. Herbert Hecht. Chairman of the Board, SoHaR, Inc., Beverly Hills. California. Ph.D.
CaI!fo~a. Engineer, S~ford University; M.S., B.S. (Electrical Engineering), (Engineering), University of California. Los Angeles; M.S. (Electrical Engineering),
UruVerslty ofPennsylvarua. Chapter I3-Communications Architecture. Polytechnic University of New York; B.S. (Electrical Engineering), City University,
New York. Section 19.2-Reliability for Space Mission Planning.
Simon D. Dawson. Systems Engineer, Microcosm, Inc., Torrance, California. MSc
(S~ac~aft Technology and Satellite Communications), University College London, Robert W. Hosken. Member of the Technical Staff, The Aerospace Corporation, El
Uruverslty o~Londo~; BSc (Hons) (Physics & EW'Opean Studies), University of Sus Segundo, California. Ph.D. (physics), University of illinois; B.S. (Electrical Engi
sex. Appendices; InsIde Rear Pages-Earth Satellite Parameters. neering), Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn. Chapter I~pacecraft Computer
Systems.
Fred J. Dietrich. Principal Engineer, Globalstar, L.P., Palo Alto, California. Ph.D.,
Ohio ~tate University; M.S. (Electrical Engineering), Purdue University; B.S. Douglas Kirkpatrick. Visiting Professor, U.S. Air Force Academy, Colorado
(Electncal Engineering), Missouri School of Mines. Chapter 13-Communications Springs, Colorado. Ph.D., University of Texas at Austin; M.S., Purdue University;
Architecture.
B.S., U.S. Air Force Academy. Section 11.2-Telemetry, Tracking, and Command;
Chapter IS-Launch Systems.
Peter G. Doukas. Senior Staff Engineer, Martin Marietta Astronautics Group,
I?enver, Colorado. B.S. (Aeronautics and Astronautics), Purdue University. Sec Malcolm K. Kong. Manager, Hardness & Survivability Engineering, TRW Systems
tion Il.~tructures and Mechanisms.
& Information Technology Group. Redondo Beach, California. M.S. (Systems Engi
neering), West Coast University, Los Angeles; B.S. (Electrical Engineering), Purdue
John S. Etemo. Chief Scientist, Ball Aerospace & Technologies Corp., Boulder,
University. Section S.2-Hardness and Survivability Requirements.
Colorado. Ph.D., M.S. (Aeronautics and Astronautics), Massachusetts Institute of
Tec~ology; B.S. (Aerospace Engineering), Case Western Reserve University.
H. C. Koons. Distinguished Scientist, Space Sciences Department, Space and Envi
Section I I. I-Attitude Determination and Control.
ronment Technology Center, The Aerospace Corporation, EI Segundo, California.
Ph.D. (Geophysics), Massachusetts Institute of Technology; B.S. (physics), Massa
Rick FIee~r. ~esident, AeroAstro,. Herndon, Virginia. Ph.D. (Thermodynamics),
chusetts Institute of Technology. Section S.I-The Space Environment.
Brown UnIVersIty; M.Sc. (Astronautics and Aeronautics), Stanford University; A.B.
(Engineering and Economics), Brown University. Chapter 22-Design of Low-Cost
Spacecraft· Wiley J. Larson. Director, Space Mission Analysis and Design Program, U.S. Air
Force Academy, Colorado Springs, Colorado. D.E. (Spacecraft Design), Texas A&M
David G. G~or~. Senior Engineering Specialist, The Aerospace Corporation, EI University; M.S. (Electrical Engineering), University of Michigan; B.S. (Electrical
Segundo, Callforma. B.S. (Mechanical Engineering), University of California. Irvine. Engineering), University of Michigan. Editor; Chapter I-The Space Mission Analy
Section lIS-Thermal. sis and Design Process; Chapter 14-Mission Operations; Chapter 23-Applying
Space Mission ~nalysis and Design Process.
D. J •. Gorney. Principal ~~tor, Defense Support Program, The Aerospace Cor
POT?bO~ EI Segundo. Callforma. Ph.D., M.S. (Atmospheric Sciences), University of Joseph P.Loftus, Jr. Assistant Director for Plans, L.B. Johnson Space 'Center,
Callforma. Los Angeles; B.S. (physics), University of Bridgeport, Connecticut. NASA,. Houston, Texas. Sloan Fellow (Business), Stanford University; M.A. (Math
Section S.I-The Space Environment. and Psychology), Fordham University; B.A. (Math and Psychology), Catholic Univer
sity. Chapter IS-Launch Systems.
Eric W •.G rob. Aerospace Engineer, Thermal Engineering Branch, NASA Goddard
Sp~ce ~bght Center, Greenbelt, Maryland. M.S. (Mechanical Engineering), Drexel Reinhold Lutz. Director, Technology Strategy, Daimler Chrysler Aerospace, Bergen,
Uruverslty; B.S. (Mechanical Engineering). West Virginia University. Section Germany. Dr.-Ing., University of German Forces; Dipl.-Ing., Technical University
11.5--Thermal. Munich. Chapter 9-Space Payload Design and Sizing.
xii
List of Authors
List of Authors xiii
Ronald A. Madler. Associate Professor, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University,
Richard P. Reinert. Staff Consultant, Spacecraft and Mission Design Division, Ball
Prescott, Arizona. Ph.D., M.S., B.S. (Aerospace Engineering Sciences), University of
Colorado, Boulder. Section 21.2-Drbital Debris-A Space Hazard. Aerospace Systems, Boulder, Colorado. B.S: (~eronautica1 ~ngi~eering), Massachu
setts Institute of Technology. Chapter 2-Mr.sszon Charactenzat;.on.
James R. McCandless. Manager (Retired), Stress Analysis, Space Systems, Lock
heed Martin Astronautics, Denver, Colorado. B.S. (ArchitecturaI Engineering), Robert L. Sackheim. Deputy Director, Propulsion Technology and. Fluid ~ec~cs
University of Texas. Section 11.6-Structures and Mechanisms. Center, .TRW, Inc., Redondo Beach, California. M.S., B.S. (ChelDlca1 Engmeenng)
Columbia University. Chapter 17-Space Propulsion Systems.
Joseph K. McDermott. Engineering Manager, Lockheed Martin Astronautics Group,
Denver, Colorado. M.E. (Engineering Management), University of Colorado; B.S. Thomas P. Sarafin. Co~ultantlPresident, Instar Engineering and .Co~ting, ~c.,
(Chemistry), Loras College. Section 11.4-Power. Littleton, Colorado. B.S. (Civil Engineering), Ohio State Umverslty. Section
11.6-Structures and Mechanisms.
Darren S. McKnight. Vice President, Titan Research and Technology, Reston, Vir
ginia. Ph.D. (Aerospace Engineering), University of Colorado; M.S. (Mechanical Michael Schulz. Senior Scientist, Lockheed Martin Advanced Technology Center.
Engineering), University of New Mexico; B.S. (Engineering), U.S. Air Force Acade Palo Alto, California. Ph.D. (physics),lVIassachusetts Institute of.Technology; B.S.
my. Section 21.2-Orbital Debris-A Space Hazard. (physics), Michigan State University. Section S.l-The Space EnVIronment.
Wade Molnau. Manufacturing Manager, Motorola Systems Solutions Group, Space Cbad Spalt. Production Technical Lead, MotoR?la Satellite Comm~catio~ ~up,
Services and Systems Division, Scottsdale, Arizona. Ph.D., M.S., B.S. (Industrial Mobile Satellite Systems Division, Chandler, Arizona. M.S. (Industrial EngmeerIng),
Engineering), Arizona State University. Section 19.1-DeSigning Space Systems/or Arizona State University; B.S. (Mechanical Engineering Technology), So~~ern
Manu/acturability. Dlinois University. Section 19. I-Designing Space Systems/or Manufacturabillty.
Paul Nordin. NASAlTDRS Resident Office Manager at Hughes Space and Com Gael F. Sqw"hb. Director for TeleCommunications and Mission Operations: Jet
munications, EI Segundo, California, employed by The Boeing Company, Seabrook, Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California. M.S. (Systems Management), Umver
sity of Southern California; B.S. (physics), Harvey Mudd College. Chapter
MD. Ph.D .• M.A., B.A., (Nuclear Physics). University of California, Berkeley.
Section S.2-Hardness and Survivability Requirements. 14--Mission Operations
Jean Olivieri. Teledesic Bus Production Manager. Motorola Advanced Systems Charles Teixeira. Chief, Systems Definition Branch, L.B. Jo~n Space Ce~ter,
Division, Chandler, Arizona. M.S. • B.S. (Industrial Engineering), Arizona State NASA, Houston, Texas. M.S. (Mechanical Engineering), LoUiSiana State Umver
University. Section 19.1-Designing Space Systems for Manufacturability. sity; B.S. (Aeronautical Engineering), New York University. Chapter IS-Launch
Systems.
Wes Ousley. Head, Thermal Engineering Branch, NASA Goddard Space Flight Cen
ter, Greenbelt, Maryland. B.S. (Mechanical Engineering), University of Maryland. Alan C. Tribble. Manager, Applications Development, ~orma~on ~echnology:
Section Il.S-Thermal. Rockwell Collins, Cedar Rapids, Iowa. Ph.D., M.S., (PhYSICS), Um~erslty of Iowa,
B.S. (physics), University of Arkansas. Section S.l-The Space EnvIronment.
Craig H. Pollock. Space Systems Engineer (Onboard Processing Design Integration
and Operations Engineering), TRW Space and Defense Sector, Redondo Beach Cal A. L. Vampola. Consultant, Space Environment Eff~ts, Vista, Ca!ifornia. ~h.D.,
M.S. (physics), St Louis University; B.S. (Mathematics and PhYSICS), Creighton
ifornia. M.A. (Mathematics), California State University, Long Beach; B.S. (physics
and Mathematics), University of New Mexico. Chapter 16-Spacecraft Computer University, Nebraska. Section S.l-The Space Environment.
Systems.
R. L. Walterscheid. Senior Scientist, Space Sciences Department, Space. and
Robert C. Prager. Engineering Specialist, The Aerospace Corporation, El Segundo, Environment Technology Center, The Aerospace Corporation, EI Segundo, Califor
California. MS. (Engineering), University of California, Berkeley. B.S. (Engineer nia. PhD. (Atmospheric Sciences), University of California, ~ Ang~les; .M.S.
ing), Princeton University. Section 1l.5-Thermal. (Meteorology). University of California, Los Ang~les; A.~. (Phrslcs), ~mverslty of
California, Berkeley; B.S. (Meteorology), UniVersity of WisconsIn. Section S.l-The
Emery I. Reeves. Shriever Chair Professor of Space Systems Engineering, U.S. Air Space Environment.
Force Academy, Colorado Springs, Colorado. M.S. (Electrical Engineering),
':1assachusetts Institute of Technology; B.E. (Electrical Engineering), Yale Univer Stanley I. Weiss. Visiting Professor, Massachusetts ~tute .of Technology and
~Ity. Chapter IO-Spacecraft Design and Sizing, Chapter 12-Spacecraft Manu/ac University of California Davis; Formerly Corporate ~ En1?neenng. an? VP Research
ure and Test. and Development, Lockheed Corporation; PhD., ~mverslty of ~~OIS; M.s., B.S. •
Renesselaer Polytechnic Institute. Chapter 4--RequJrements Definttton.
xiv
List of Authors
List of Authors xv
James R. Wertz. President, Microcosm, Inc., Torrance, California. Ph.D. (Relativity m
SMAD I, ll, and Authors
& Cosmology), University of Texas, Austin; M.S. (Administration of Science
and Technology), George Washington University; S.B. (physics), Massachusetts
Institute of Technology. Editor; Chapter I-The Space Mission Analysis and Design The third edition is the end result of a substantial effort by the authors of all the
Process; Chapter 2-Mission Characterization; Chapter 3-Mission Evaluation; SMAD editions. Consequently, we would like to acknowledge and express our thanks
Chapter 5-Space Mission Geometry; Chapter 7-0rbit and ConsteUation Design; to alI of the authors who have contributed to this series:
Section S.I-The Space Environment; Section 1l.7--Guidance and Navigation;
Chapter 2~Applying the Space Mission Analysis and Design Process; Appen Henry Apgar James R. McCandless
dix E-Universal Time and Julian Dates. David A. Bearden Joseph K. McDermott
Robert Bell Darren S. McKnight
Gary G. Whitworth. Senior Engineer (Retired), Applied Physics Laboratory, Johns Richard T. Berget Robert K. McMor4ie
Hopkins University, Laurel, Maryland. B.S. (Electrical Engineering), University of J. B. Blake Wade Molnau
Tennessee. Chapter 15-Ground System Design and Sizing. James E. Boatwright Ralph L. Mueller
Daryl G. Boden David Negron, Jr.
Michael S. Williams. Vice President, Personal SATCOM Systems, Lockheed Martin William R. Britton Paul Nordin
Global Telecommunications, Reston, VA. M.S. (Electrical Engineering), University Robert F. Brodsky Thomas P. O'Brien
of Pennsylvania; M.B.A. (Statistics/Operations Research), Temple University; B.S.
John B. Carraway Jean Olivieri
(Physics), St Joseph's University. Chapter 4-Requirements Definition.
Bruce Chesley Wes Ousley
Arthur Chomas Aniceto Panetti
William B. Wirln. General Manager, Wirin & Associates. 1.D. (University of
John T. Collins Craig H. Pollock
Southern California School of Law); B.A. (political Science), Occidental College.
Section 21.1-Law and Policy Considerations. Richard S. Davies Robert C. Prager
Simon D. Dawson Emery I. Reeves
Robert E. Wong. Manager, Economic Analysis, TRW Systems Engineering and Fred 1. Dietrich Richard P. Reinert
Development Division. TRW, Inc., Redondo Beach, California. PhD. (Economics), Peter G. Doukas Robert L. Sackheim
University of Southern California; M.S. (Mathematics), University of Southern Neal Ely Thomas P. Sarafin
California; M.A. (Economics), University of Southern California; B.S. (Physics), John S. Etemo Michael Schulz
Iowa State University. Chapter 2O--Cost Modeling. Rick Fleeter ChadSpalt
John R. Ford, Jr. Gael F. Squibb
Sidney Zafran. Program Manager, TRW, Inc., Redondo Beach, California. B.S. Martin E.B. France Charles Teixeira
(Mechanical Engineering), Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Chapter 17- . David G. Gilmore Merlin E. Thimlar
Space Propulsion Systems.
Steven Glaseman Alan C. Tribble
D.J.Gorney Tim Tumer
EricW.Grob A. L. Vampola
L. Jane Hansen R. L. Walterscheid
Brian E. Hardt Richard Warner .
Herbert Hecht Stanley I. Weiss
Robert W. Hosken James R. Wertz
Douglas Kirkpatrick Gary G. Whitworth
Malcolm K. Kong Michael S. Williams
H. C. Koons William B. Wirin
Wiley J. Larson Robert S. Wolf
Joseph P. Loftus, Jr. RobertE. Wong
Reinhold Lutz Sidney Zafran
Ronald A. Madler Robert O. Zennuehlen
Fr~ois Martel Harold F. Zimbelman
1
I Preface xvii
The book is intended as a textbook for either introductory graduate or advanced
undergraduate courses, or as a reference for those already working in space tech
Preface
nology. It can also provide valuable supplementary material for related courses such
as spacecraft design or space mission operations. We believe the book can be a key
.Space. Mission AruJIysis and Design, known as SMAD to its many friends, has tool for payload designers who need to find out more about space mission design and
gamed WIdespread use as a text and reference throughout the astronautics community. for those charged with the responsibility of developing space mission requirements
The pwpose of the third edition of SMAD is to both update the book and make it more and specifications. Fmally, we hope that it will be of use to many system engineers in
useful and more practical wherever possible. Some topics, such as astrodynamics and this field who have a detailed knowledge of one area, but need to broaden their .,ack
mission geometry, have changed relatively little since pUblication of the second edi ground or verify their understanding in related topics.
tion in 1992. Here we have made minor modifications to make the material clearer and The book is meant to be read sequentially, although most of the chapters are self
more pr~. On the other hand, topics such as space computers and the design of contained, with references to other parts of the book as needed. For readers with
specific interests, we recommend the following:
?bserva~o~ p~yloads ,~ave been nearly co~letely rewritten. Because of the growing
Interest In 'LightSats and low-Earth OrbIt constellations we have added a Small,sat • Those concerned primarily with mission analysis and design should read
cost model, expanded the discussion of constellation design, and included a new sec Chaps. 1-9 and 19-23.
tion on multi-satellite manufacturing. The entire volume reflects a greater emphasis on
• Those concerned with spacecraft and subsystem design should read Chaps. 1,
reducing mission cos~ ~d doing more with less people and fewer resources." Fmally, 2, 4,8-13, and 16-23.
the FIreSat sample mISSIon has been extended further and the appendices and end mat
• Those concerned primarily with mission operations and the ground interaction
ter updated and expanded to provide greater utility as a quick reference. We hope the
new edition is better and more useful to you. should read Chaps. 1,2,4, and 13-16.
As with the first two editions, the goal of the book to is allow you to begin with a • Those concerned with requirements definition, logistics, and putting a space
"blank sheet of paper" and design a space mission to meet a set of broad, often poorly system in place should read Chaps. 1-4,7,9, 10, and 18-23.
defined, objectives at minimum cost and risk. You should be able to define the mission
• Those interested in constellation design and multi-satellite systems should
in sufficient detail to identify principal drivers and make a preliminary assessment of
read Chaps. 1-9, 13-16, and 19-23.
overall performance, size, cost, and risk. The emphasis is on low-Earth orbit, un
• Those interested in reducing mission cost and the design of low-cost missions
manned sp~ However, we .hope the principles are broad enough to be applica
should read Chaps. 1-3,7-10,12,20-23, and the companion volume, Reduc
ble to ~ther mI~IOnS as well. We Intend the book to be a practical guide, rather than a
ing Space Mission Cost.
theoretical treatise. As much as possible, we have provided physical and engineering
data, rules of thumb, empirical formulas, and design algorithms based on past experi SI (metric) units are used throughout the book. Conversions for essentially all
ence. We assume that the reader has a general knowledge of physics, math, and basic common units are contained in Appendix F. Conversion factors and physical constants
engineering, but is not necessarily familiar with any aspect of space technology. are generally given to their full available accuracy so that they can be inserted into
The ~ edition represents an amalgam of contributions over the last decade by computer programs and not considered further. As discussed in the introduction to the
m~y engIneers. and m~agers ~m throughout the community. It reflects the insight appendices, the values given are those adopted by the National Bureau of Standards
gamed from theIr practical expenence, and suggests how things might be done better based on a least-squares fit to the fundamental physical constants or international
in the future. From time to time the views of authors and editors conflict, as must nec agreement on the defInitions of various units. In the case of astronomical constants,
essarily ~~ gi~en the broad diversity of experience. We believe it is important to values adopted by the International Astronomical Union are given. The most com
reflect this diversIty rather than suppress the opinions of individual experts. Similarly, monly used astronautical formulas and constants are in the appendices. An expanded
the level of treatment varies among topics, depending both on the issues each author table of space mission parameters for Earth orbits is on the inside back endleaf. For
feels is critical and our overall assessment of the level of detail in each topic that is those wishing to expand that table or use it for other central bodies, the formulas used
important to the preliminary mission analysis and design process. for creating it are on the preceding pages.
Leadership, funding, and support essential to updating the book were provided by
numerous programs at the Air Force Space and Missile Center, Air Force Space
Command, NASA Headquarters, NASNGoddard Space Flight Center, and the
• The continuing. unrelenting demand to drive down mission cost has led to the creation a Advanced Projects Research Agency. Obtaining funding to create and maintain
companion volume to SMAD, RedUCing Space Mission Cost [Wertz and Larson, 1996] which much-needed reference material is exceptionally difficult. We are deeply indebted to
addresses cost reduction in all aspects of mission design and includes 10 case studies ~f how
the process works in practice. the sponsoring organizations, particularly Air Force Phillips Laboratory, for their
support and their recognition of the importance of projects such as this one.
The third edition of this book is the result of nearly two years of effort by a
dedicated team of government, industry, and academic professionals. The Department
xvi of Astronautics, United States Air Force Academy, provided unwavering support for
Preface Preface
the project. Michael DeLorenzo, Chairman of the Department of Astronautics, communications constellations and microgravity work now beginning to become a
provided the leadership and continuing support critical to projects of this type. Both reality to solar power satellites, space tourism, space ind~t:rililization, and settlements
Doug Kirkpatrick and Perry Luckett performed a detailed grammatical review in a on the Moon and planets which are .still to be designed. We hope that this volume
valiant effort to prevent the rest of us from demonstrating why we became engineers provides a portion of the roadmap and incentive to those who will undertake these·
rather than writers. Several graphics artists at the Academy, particularly Mary tasks. We wish you the best of success in this endeavor.
Tostanoski and Debra Porter, spent many hours developing and updating artwork.
Joan Aug and Bert Reinertson cheerfully handled the huge administrative burden at June, 1999
the Academy. Numerous faculty members, staff, and students graciously sacrificed
their time to provide assistance, review, and comments. Daryl Boden assisted with the JamesR. Wertz Wiley J. Larson
editing and reviewing even after changing assignments to the Naval Academy. Doug Microcosm, Inc. Department of Astronautics
Kirkpatrick managed the task for the Air Force with great skill and patience and 401 Coral Circle United States Air Force Academy
reviewed nearly all of the material for both technical and linguistic correctness! EI Segundo, CA 90245-4622 Colorado Springs, CO 80840-6224
OAO Corporation, Colorado Springs, Colorado, provided the contract support for FAX: [phone] FAX: [phone]
the project. Anita Shute at the Air Force Academy spent many hours revising drafts, [email protected] [email protected]
creating artwork, and working all aspects of the project. Eugene deGeus Of Kluwer
Academic Publishers supplied substantial assistance with all aspects of the publishing
activity. This was his final project at Kluwer before taking a science administration Cox, A.N. ed. 1999. Astrophysical Quantities, New York: Springer-Verlag ..
position with the Dutch government. We will miss his wisdom and guidance and wish
Wertz, James R. and Wiley J. Larson. 1996. Reducing Space Mission Cost. Tonance, CA and
him the best of future success.
Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Microcosm Press and lOuwer Academic Publishers.
At Microcosm, the entire analysis and publications staff worked virtually all
aspects of the book (art, grammar, equation checking, technical reviews, and camera
ready copy) and suffered patiently through ''the book project" as it continually
absorbed great amounts of limited resources. Much of the new graphics was done by
undergraduate students Karen Burnham. Paul Murata, Alan Chen, and Julie Wertz
under the very capable guidance of Kevin Polk and Simon Dawson. Jennifer Burnham
and Judith Neiger did much of the proofing. Robert Bell did most of the demanding
task of updating units and conversion factors. John Collins created the new FueSat
cost model. Wendi Huntzicker and Joy Sakaguchi created the new camera-ready copy
for most of the book. Joy and Chris deFelippo did much of the new art. Fmally, Donna
Klungle did a truly remarkable job managing, administering, editing, reviewing, and
preparing revisions, drafts, and the final camera-ready copy. Donna accomplished this
with skill and good humor, while dealing with the conflicting demands of multiple au
thors and editors.
Arthur Cox of Lawrence Livermore National Labs and the editors of Astrophysical
Quantities [1999] graciously permitted the use of drafts of their forthcoming volume
so that we could obtain the most current values for physical quantities. We highly
recommend that readers consult Astrophysical Quantities for solar system and astro-
nomical parameters which are not contained here. .
Every effort has been made to eliminate mathematical and factua1 errors. Many
errors from prior editions have been found largely through readers' comments and
constructive criticism. Please continue to send any errors, omissions, corrections, or
comments to either editor at the addresses below. We sincerely hope that the book will
be of use to you in our common goal of reducing the cost and complexity of space
utilization.
Fmally, one of the most exciting aspects of space mission analysis and design is that
after 40 years of space exploration we have only begun to scratch the surface of the
variety of important inissions that can and should be done. In spite of problems, set
backs, and higher costs than any of us would like, people young and old remain excited
about space. The exploration of space will take dramatic new turns in the future, from
---------------
Chapter 1
The Space Mission Analysis and Design Process
James R. Wertz, Microcosm, Inc.
Wiley J. Larson, Unued States Air Force Academy
1.1 Introduction and Overview
1.2 The Space Mission Life Cycle
1.3 Step 1: Definition of Mission Objectives
1.4 Step 2: Preliminary Estimate of Mission Needs,
Requirements, and Constraints
Space mission analysis and design begins with one or more broad objectives and
constraints and then proceeds to define a space system that will meet them at the
lowest possible cost. Broad objectives and constraints are the key to this process.
Procurement plans for space systems too often substitute detailed numerical require
ments for broad mission objectives. To get the most performance for the money spent.
we must require of the system only what it can reasonably achieve. Thus, while our
overall objectives to communicate, navigate, or observe will generally remain the
same, we will achieve these objectives .differently as technology and our understand
ing of the process and problem evolve. This chapter summarizes, and the book as a
whole details, this process of defining and refining both what is to be done and what
mission concept will do it at the lowest cost.
There are now a number of references available on the mission design process and
the definition of mission objectives. Rechtin [1991] and Ruskin and Estes [1995]
provide general discussions "fthis process. Shishko [1995] provides an overview from
the NASA perspective and Przemieniecki [1993] gives a similar treatment for defense
missions. Davidoff [1998] and Wertz and Larson [1996] discuss this process from the
perspective of very low-cost missions and methods for dramatically reducing mission
cost. respectively. Boden and Larson [1996] discuss the analysis and design process
specifically .f or mission operations. Fmally, Kay [1995] examines the fundamental
difficulty of doing technical trades within a democratic political environment.
1.1 bitroduction and Overview
Table 1-1 summarizes our approach to the space mission analysis and design
process. Space missions range widely from communications, to planetary explomtion,
to proposals for space manufacturing, to burial in space. No single process can fully
cover all contingencies, but the method in Table 1-1 summarizes a pmctical approach
evolved over the first 40 years of space exploration.