South-Eastern Mediterranean Peoples Between 130,000 and 10,000 Years Ago

201 Pages·52.907 MB·English

by  Elena A. A. Garcea

South-Eastern Mediterranean Peoples
Between 130,000 and 10,000 Years Ago

South-Eastern Mediterranean Peoples
Between 130,000 and 10,000 Years Ago
Edited by
Elena A. A. Garcea
Contributing authors
Nick Barton, Ofer Bar-Yosef, Anna Belfer-Cohen, Abdeljalil Bouzouggar,
Brian Boyd, Laine Clark-Balzan, Simon N. Collcutt, André Debénath, Elena A. A. Garcea,
Mohamed Abdeljalil El Hajraoui, Roland Nespoulet, Romuald Schild, Jean-Luc Schwenninger,
John J. Shea, Jennifer R. Smith, Pierre M. Vermeersch and Fred Wendorf
Oxbow Books
Oxford and Oakville
Published by
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© Oxbow Books and the individual authors 2010
ISBN 978-1-84217-403-6
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
South-eastern Mediterranean peoples between 130,000 and 10,000 years ago / edited by Elena A.A. Garcea ;
contributing authors, Nick Barton ... [et al.].
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-84217-403-6 (hardback)
1. Stone age--Africa, North. 2. Stone age--Middle East. 3. Prehistoric peoples--Africa, North. 4. Prehistoric
peoples--Middle East. 5. Hunting and gathering societies--Africa, North. 6. Hunting and gathering societies--
Middle East. 7. Africa, North--Antiquities. 8. Middle East--Antiquities. I. Garcea, Elena A. A.
GN776.A15S68 2010
930.1’2--dc22
2010029153
Printed and bound in Great Britain by
Short Run Press, Exeter
Contents
List of fi gures .......................................................................................................................................................vi
List of tables ......................................................................................................................................................viii
Notes on contributors ..........................................................................................................................................ix
Acknowledgements .............................................................................................................................................xii
1. Introduction: goals and challenges
Elena A. A. Garcea .....................................................................................................................................1
2. Palaeoenvironments of eastern North Africa and the Levant in the late Pleistocene
Jennifer R. Smith.........................................................................................................................................6
3. A new luminescence chronology for Aterian cave sites on the Atlantic coast of Morocco
Jean-Luc Schwenninger, Simon N. Collcutt, Nick Barton, Abdeljalil Bouzouggar,
Laine Clark-Balzan, Mohamed Abdeljalil El Hajraoui, Roland Nespoulet and André Debénath ..........18
4. The spread of Aterian peoples in North Africa
Elena A. A. Garcea ...................................................................................................................................37
5. The Lower and Upper Later Stone Age of North Africa
Elena A. A. Garcea ...................................................................................................................................54
6. Middle and Upper Palaeolithic in the Egyptian Nile Valley
Pierre M. Vermeersch ...............................................................................................................................66
7. Late Palaeolithic hunter-gatherers in the Nile Valley of Nubia and Upper Egypt
Romuald Schild and Fred Wendorf ..........................................................................................................89
8. Neanderthals and early Homo sapiens in the Levant
John J. Shea ............................................................................................................................................126
9. The Levantine Upper Palaeolithic and Epipalaeolithic
Ofer Bar-Yosef and Anna Belfer-Cohen .................................................................................................144
10. The Later Epipalaeolithic (Natufi an) Levant: a brief history and review
Brian Boyd ..............................................................................................................................................168
11. Bridging the gap between in and out of Africa
Elena A. A. Garcea .................................................................................................................................174
Index ................................................................................................................................................................183
List of Figures
Chapter 1 excavation at the Haua Fteah cave (Libya) (adapted from
1.1 Map of the south-eastern Mediterranean basin. McBurney 1967).
4.6 Early Middle Stone Age retouched tools from Haua Fteah
(Libya): 1, 11, 12. Notched fl akes; 2–9. Simple sidescrapers;
Chapter 2
10, 14–17. Points; 13. Double endscraper (adapted from
2.1 Modern Mediterranean and monsoonal rainfall regimes over
McBurney 1967).
North Africa and the Levant, defi ned using the 100 mm
4.7 Aterian retouched tools from Uan Tabu (Libya): 1. Levallois
isohyet, following Arz et al. 2003.
fl ake core; 2. Nubian core; 3. Retouched Nubian point; 4.
2.2 Locations of surfi cial water features present during pluvial
Elongated point; 5. Simple concave side scraper; 6. Double
phases in eastern North Africa. While some of these features
concave-convex sidescraper; 7. Convergent-convex
(indicated by an asterisk) have been directly dated to the
sidescraper; 8. Tanged ogival point.
MIS 5 pluvial phase, others are constrained in age only to
4.8 Stratigraphic section of the excavation at Uan Tabu
the Pleistocene. Libyan lakes and rivers from Drake et al.
(Libya).
2008. Dakhleh lake extent from Kieniewicz and Smith 2009,
4.9 Aterian retouched tools from the Jebel Gharbi (Libya): 1.
Bir Sahara/Bir Tarfawi location from Wendorf et al. 1993.
Levallois core; 2. Denticulated fl ake; 3. Convergent-convex
Drainage network in Egypt and northern Sudan was
sidescraper; 4. Perforator; 5. Simple endscraper; 6–7. Tanged
determined (this study) from modern topography and thus
points. 1–5 from Wadi Ghan, 6–7 from Ain Zargha (Ras el
only represents channels potentially active during the
Wadi).
Pleistocene.
4.10 Stratigraphy of the Wadi Ghan (Libya) (adapted from Garcea
and Giraudi 2006).
Chapter 3
4.11 The Ras el Wadi spring.
3.1 Location map of cave sites.
4.12 Stratigraphy of the Ras el Wadi in the Wadi Ain Zargha
3.2 Dar es-Soltan I (adapted from Barton et al. 2009).
(Libya) (adapted from Garcea and Giraudi 2006).
3.3 Dar es-Soltan II (photographic montage, removing additional
rock from foreground).
Chapter 5
3.4 El Mnasra (after Nespoulet et al. 2008, Fig. 3, with current
5.1 Map of sites cited in the text.
OSL locations added).
5.2 Map of the African vegetation at 20–16 radiocarbon ka ago
3.5 Les Contrebandiers (Section H–J 21/22, looking out-
(adapted from Adams 1998).
wards).
5.3 Map of the African vegetation at present (adapted from
3.6 Les Contrebandiers (Section approximately H 19/20, looking
Adams 1998).
inwards).
5.4 Map of the African vegetation at 11 radiocarbon ka ago
(adapted from Adams 1998).
Chapter 4 5.5 Early Dabban retouched tools from Haua Fteah (Libya): 1.
4.1 Map of sites cited in the text. Chamfered core-tool with fi tting burin spall; 2–3. Chamfered
4.2 Map of the palaeoenvironments of the Mediterranean Basin blades; 4. Sharpening spall; 5–6. Angle burins; 7. Awl; 8–11.
at the Last Interglacial (MIS 5e), 125–120 ka BP: dec: Endscrapers; 12–16. Backed blades; 17–23. Backed blade
deciduous forest; med: Mediterranean ever green woodland; fragments; 24–25. Blade cores (adapted from McBurney
sde: semidesert; des: desert; sav: Sahelian savannah (adapted 1967).
from Van Andel and Tzedakis 1996). 5.6 Iberomaurusian retouched tools from Ain Zargha (Ras el
4.3 Map of the palaeoenvironments of the Mediterranean Basin Wadi): 1. Notched fl ake; 2. Scaled piece; 3. Endscraper on
in the late MIS 4 at 65 ka BP: t/s: tundra and cold steppe a retouched fl ake; 4. Angle burin on a truncation; 5. Dihedral
mosaic; st: arid cold steppe; sde: semi desert; des desert; sav: burin; 6. Microburin; 7–11. backed bladelets.
savannah (adapted from Van Andel and Tzedakis 1996). 5.7 Stratigraphy of Shakshuk (Libya) (adapted from Garcea and
4.4 Early Middle Stone Age retouched tools from Oued Akarit Giraudi 2006).
(Tunisia): 1. Point; 2. Simple convex sidescraper; 3. Elongated
point; 4. Double straight-convex sidescraper on a Levallois Chapter 6
fl ake; 5. Point on a Levallois fl ake; 6. Déjeté sidescraper 6.1 Map of Upper Egypt with the position of the important
(adapted from Tixier 1967). sites.
4.5 Stratigraphic section of the southern side of the 1955 6.2 Extraction pits with Middle Palaeolithic artefacts (visible in
List of Figures vii
the dump along the road) along the desert road from Dendara 7.8 Silsilian: Site E71K20, Area B, Esna area. 1–2: Opposed
to the South. The unconsolidated fi ll of the pits were emptied platform blade cores; 3–4: Simple microb urins; 5: Endscraper;
while the road was cut into the terrace deposits. 6: Burin; 7–8: Arch-backed bladelets with retouched bases;
6.3 The site of Nazlet Khater 1. 9–13: Truncated blades; 2: with microburin scar on tip.
6.4 The Taramsa hill at the start of the excavations. 7.9 Sebilian: Sites 83, Gebel Sahaba area (1–2, 4–5) and 2010B,
6.5 Nubian Complex cores and points from Nazlet Khater 1. Wadi Halfa Airport Area (3, 6). 1: Discoidal core; 2:
6.6 Stratigraphy of Beit Allam with the position of the exploited Preferential Levallois fl ake core; 3: Endscraper; 4–5: Backed
undercut cobble layer (3) and the knapping area (9). and basally truncated fl ake; 6: Basally and obliquely truncated
6.7 The lay out of the extraction trenches at Nazlet Safaha 2, fl ake.
with numerous fl aking areas (numbered). 7.10 Sebilian: Sites 2010B (1–5) and 1042 (6), Second Cataract
6.8 Safahan Levallois end-products from Nazlet Safaha 2. area; E-61M1 (7–12), Dishna area. 1–2: Basally and obliquely
6.9 Taramsan blades from Taramsa 1. truncated fl akes; 3–4: Basal truncation on fl akes; 5: Simple
6.10 Proximal view on refitted blades on a core of the microburin; 6, 8: Backed and basally truncated fl akes; 7:
Taramsan. Oblique distal truncated fl ake; 9: Levallois point with basal
6.11 The child in its burial position at Taramsa 1. thinning; 10: Endscraper; 11: Fully arch-backed piece
6.12 Damming of the Nile valley during the Late Glacial (segment); 12: Bec.
Maximum with dune near Nag’Hammadi and the Makhadma 7.11 Arkinian: Site DIW 1, Concentration B (1–3, 5–6, 8–10, 11),
lake upstream. Concentration A (4, 7). 1: Splintered pebble (bipolar core);
6.13 The correlation between the number of 14C dates (upper part) 4: Single platform fl ake core on a pebble; 2–3, 5–6, 8–10:
and the GISP2 curve (lower part) after CalPal. Endscrapers on cortex fl akes; 7: Single platform bladelet
6.14 Blades from the El Tiwayrat site. core on a pebble; 11: Bone spatula.
6.15 The site of Nazlet Khater 4 with the presence of a bell pit 7.12 Arkinian: Site Dibeira West 1, Concentration A and A Trench
at each arrow. (1–6, 17–20), Concentration I (7–11, 15–16, 21–23),
6.16 A person emerging from an underground gallery into a bell Concentration E (24). 1–2: Straight-backed pointed bladelets;
pit. 3–11: Arch-backed bladelets; 12–14: Ouchtata pieces; 15–16:
6.17 Cores and blades from Nazlet Khater 4. Arch-backed pieces with thick back; 17–20: Fully arch-
6.18 Axes from Nazlet Khater 4. backed bladelets (segments); 21: Scalene triangle; 22–23:
6.19 The boulders on the Nazlet Khater 2 hill (suggesting the Elongated backed rectangles; 24: Pitted anvil.
presence of a burial place?). 7.13 Fakhurian: Sites E71K3 (1–5, 11–12, 16), E-71-K5 (8–10),
6.20 The burial 2 at Nazlet Khater. Deir El Fakhuri, and E71K12 (6–7, 13–15), Wadi n. 6, Esna
6.21 Hypothesis on the origin of modern man with the position area. 1: Single platform bladelet core; 2: Opposed platform
of NK 2, modifi ed from Excoffi er (2002) and Crevecoeur bladelet core; 3–5: Double backed perforators; 6–7: Perfora-
(2008). tors; 8–9, 13–15: Straight backed bladelets; 10, 12: Arch-
6.22 Tools on blades from Shuwikhat 1. backed bladelets; 11: Arch-backed blade; 16: Endscraper.
7.14 Kubbaniyan: Sites E-78-3 (1–2, 3–4, 5–7, 10–14) and E-78-
Chapter 7 4 (8–9), Wadi Kubbaniya. 1–2: Single platform cores; 3–4:
7.1 Most important areas of Late Palaeolithic occurrences in Truncated bladelets; 5–6: Opposed platform cores; 7:
Lower Nubia and Upper Egypt. Patterned multi-platform core; 8: Halfa fl ake; 9: Levallois
7.2 Braided, Late Palaeolithic Nile at the mouth of Wadi core; 10: Burin; 11–14: Ouchtata pieces.
Kubbaniya during the low water season). 7.15 Kubbaniyan: Sites E-78-3 (1, 4, 11–16) and E-78-4 (2–3,
7.3 Dammed lake at the mouth of Wadi Kubbaniya just before 5–10), Wadi Kubbaniya. 1: Blade with continuous retouch;
termination of the Late Palaeolithic Aggradation, low water 2–3: Scaled pieces; 4: Multiple burin; 5–7: Bone points;
stage, level of the dam lake exaggerated. 8–10: Ostrich eggshell beads; 11–16: Bone points, dots
7.4 Tentative chronology of the Late Palaeolithic taxonomic units indicate use polish, note impact scar on n. 16.
in Lower Nubia and Upper Egypt in cal years BP. 7.16 Idfuan: Site E71K9C, Village 4, Esna area. 1–3: Converging
7.5 Gemaian: Sites 1025 (1–4, 6–7), 2009 (11–12), 412 (8–12, denticulated blade/perforator; 4: Denticulated blade; 5:
14–15), and 278–4 (5, 13). 1, 6–7: Gemaian point cores; 5: Truncated blade with basal blunting; 6–7: Burins.
Levallois fl ake core; 2–4: Gemaian points with basal blunting; 7.17 Afi an: Site E71K18 (1–2, 5–6) and E71K6B (3–4), Thomas-
8–10: Ouchtata bladelets; 11–12: Converging denticulates; Afi a Village, Esna area. 1: Opposed platform bladelet core;
13: Burin; 14: Sidescraper; 15: Bone point. 2: Single platform bladelet core; 3–4: Endscrapers; 5–6:
7.6 Halfan: Sites 443 (1, 3, 6–7, 11–12, 13–18) and 1018 (2, Burins.
4–5, 8–10). 1: Discoidal core; 2, 4–5: Halfa cores; 3: Changed 7.18 Afi an: Site E71K18 (5–6) and E71K6B (1–4, 7–20), Thomas-
orientation core; 6–7: Backed blades; 8–10: Halfa fl akes; Afi a Village, Esna area. 1–2: Bent Levallois cores; 3: Flake
11–12: Single platform cores; 13–18: Ouchtata bladelets. from a bent Levallois core; 4: Backed sickle-fl ake from a
7.7 Qadan: Sites 8905, Locality A (18–19), Locality B (11–12), bent Levallois core; 5–6: Fully arch-backed blades; 7–9,
Area C (1–10, 13–17), Tushka area. 1–6: Fully arch-backed 11–14: Isosceles triangles, 7–9 and 13–14: with microburin
pieces; 7: Arch-backed fl ake; 8–10: Basal truncation on scars; 10: Simple microburin; 15–18: Basally truncated
fl akes; 11–12: Sidescrapers; 13–15: Burins; 16–17, 19: Scaled bladelets and fl akes; 19–20: Central pressure microburins.
pieces; 18: Opposed platform bladelet core. 7.19 Isnan: Sites E71K14, Area D (1–3), E71K15 (4–5), Wadi n.
vviiiiii List of Tables
6, and E71K22 (6–14), Deir El Fakhuri, Esna area. 1–2: and (2) Qafzeh (after Goren-Inbar 1990, 238; Hovers et al.
Endscrapers on fl akes; 3–4: Burins; 5: Arch-backed fl ake; 1997).
6–9: Trapezoids; 10: Basally truncated fl ake; 11–14: Elongated
backed rectangles. Chapter 9
7.20 Subsistence cycle and niches at Wadi Kubbaniya between c. 9.1 Distribution map of Levantine IUP and Early Ahmarian
21 and 19.3 cal ka BP. sites.
7.21 Site 117, Gebel Sahaba, Burials 26 and 32. Two members 9.2 Schematic drawings of Early Upper Palaeolithic cores and
of a group of four. tool types: 1. IUP blade core; 2. IUP blade with facetted
7.22 Chronological relationship of the Arkinian (SMU-581 and platform; 3. Opposed platform blade core; 4. Umm et-Tleil
SMU-600) and the El Adam settlers of the South Western point; 5. Chamfered fl ake; 6. Emireh point; 7. Ksar Akil
Desert. Calibration according to OxCal, v3.10 (Bronk- point; 8. el-Wad point; 9. Carinated core (Late Ahmarian);
Ramsey 2001). 10. Carinated (twisted) core on a thick fl ake; 11. Burin on
truncation (“Atlitian”).
Chapter 8 9.3 Distribution map of Aurignacian sites in the Levant.
8.1 Map showing key Levantine Middle Paleolithic sites. Site 9.4 A selection of stone Aurignacian arefacts (after Belfer-Cohen
names enclosed in boxes are those from which morpho- and Bar-Yosef 1981): 1–9. Dufour bladelets; 10–12, 15.
logically-diagnositic hominin fossils have been recovered. Carinated and nosed scrapers; 14. Carinated burin; 16. Burin
8.2 Crania of Levantine Neanderthal and early Homo sapiens on truncation; 17–18. Aurignacian blades; 19–20. Endscrapers
fossils. on retouched blades.
8.3 Levantine Mousterian stone tools. 1. Elongated Levallois 9.5 A selection of Aurignacian bone and antler tools (after Bar-
point; 2. Abu Sif knife (retouched elongated Levallois point); Yosef in Bar-Yosef and Pilbean 2000, with permission):1–3,
3. Burin on blade; 4. Backed blade; 5. Double sidescraper 7. Points and awls; 5–6. Antler bi-points; 8–9. Pendants from
on Levallois point; 6. Sidescraper on Levallois fl ake; 7. deer teeth; 10. Lissoir; 11. Shaped object; 12–13. Split based
Levallois fl ake; 8–10. Levallois points; 11. Truncated-facetted points (Provenience: 1–12. Hayonim cave, layer D; 13.
piece (Sources: 1–4. Tabun, Unit IX; 5–7, 11. Qafzeh, Units Kebara cave, unit I–II).
XIII–XV; 8–10. Kebara, Units IX–XII). 9.6 Distribution map of selected Late Ahmarian sites.
8.4 Burial of Skhul 5 (after Garrod and Bate 1937, Plate 9.7 Distribution map of selected Flake Industries sites.
LII.2).
8.5 Burial of Qafzeh 11 (after Vandermeersch 1970). Chapter 11
8.6 Incised stone artefacts from MP contexts at (1) Biqat Quneitra 11.1 Map of possible multiple dispersal routes out of Africa.
List of Tables
Chapter 1 3.4 The Contrebandiers sequence.
1.1 Synoptic correlation of the different cultural units and 3.5 Dose rates, palaeodose values and calculated age
relative chronologies. estimates. Values highlighted in italics may be prob-
lematic and age estimates inserted in brackets are
Chapter 3 considered to be unreliable. Data relating to samples
3.1 The Dar es-Soltan I sequence (the correlation with the from Dar es-Soltan I [X2376 to X2397] are reproduced
Ruhlmann sequence is shown on the left by the ‘(R)’ from Table 3 in Barton et al. (2009).
prefi x). 3.6 Proposed correlation of stratigraphic units between
3.2 The Dar es-Soltan II sequence (the descriptions, different Aterian cave sites of the Témara region. The
tabulated here and later in this paper, are combinations unmodifi ed central OSL age estimates are shown in
of the observations made by one of us (SNC) during brackets.
visits in 2005 and a selection only of material published
after earlier campaigns, suffi cient to ensure continuity Chapter 8
of reporting). 8.1 Levantine late Middle Pleistocene and early Upper
3.3 The El Mnasra sequence. Pleistoc ene cultural stratigraphy.
Notes on Contributors
Nick Barton teaches Palaeolithic archaeology at the Institute The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel (currently the
of Archaeology, Oxford University where he holds a chair). She studies lithic and bone industries as well as human
Professorship and is a fellow of Hertford College. Since relics. Her main interest lies in the domain of exploring
2001 he has been co-directing a programme of multi- prehistoric beginnings. Thus she has been studying the
disciplinary fi eldwork and research in Morocco, principally Levantine Upper Palaeolithic which represents the fl ourishing
at the site of Grotte des Pigeons at Taforalt but also at various and spread of modern humans, as well as the change over
sites in the north and along the Atlantic coast of Morocco. from extractive to productive economies during the later
He is currently principal co-investigator of the RESET project Epipalaeolithic. She was involved in different fi eld projects
concerning Human Responses to Abrupt Climatic Events in in the past, including Sinai (Egypt), Republic of Georgia and
the Late Pleistocene and a Leverhulme project investigating Israel. She has been and still is involved in the multidisciplinary
cemeteries and sedentism in the Late Palaeo lithic of North and multinational excavation projects of Kebara and Hayonim
Africa. His main research interests are: early human caves in Israel and Dzudzuana cave in Georgia.
technologies; human evolution and environmental change;
(Address: Department of Prehistory, Institute of Archaeology,
artefact taphonomy and site formation processes in caves.
Hebrew University, 91905 Jerusalem, Israel. E-mail:
(Address: Institute of Archaeology, University of Oxford, [email protected])
36 Beaumont Street, Oxford OX1 2PG, United Kingdom.
E-mail: [email protected]) Abdeljalil Bouzouggar is a senior lecturer and the head of
the Prehistory Department at the National Institute of
Ofer Bar-Yosef (Ph.D., Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel, Archaeological Sciences and Heritage (INSAP), Morocco
1970) is MacCurdy Professor of prehistoric archae ology, and associate researcher at the Department of Human
Harvard University since 1988, Foreign Member of the Evolution, Max Planck Institute, Leipzig, Germany. His main
National Academy of Sciences (2001), and Corresponding research interests concern the prehistory in Morocco and
Fellow of the British Academy. Since 1959, he participated especially the Aterian, its origin and develop ment, lithic raw
in a wide range of excavations of prehistoric sites in Israel, materials, lithic technology and modern behaviour. Since
Sinai (Egypt), Turkey, Czech Republic, Republic of Georgia, 2000 he has been conducting fi eldworks in different places
and the People’s Republic of China. His early work added in Morocco: Grotte des Pigeons at Taforalt, Rhafas Cave,
evidence for early human dispersals from Africa to Eurasia Ghar Cahal, and Dar es Soltan I. He teaches Middle Stone
(at the site of ‘Ubeidiya (c. 1.5 Ma) in the Jordan Valley. Age/Later Stone Age transition and Later Stone Age
More recently, as a co-director of an Israeli-French-American archaeology at INSAP and the University of Rabat.
research programme, he spent two decades in Kebara, Qafzeh,
(Address: Institut National des Sciences de l’Archéologie et
and Hayonim caves in Israel. One of his major projects was
du Patrimoine, Hay Riad, Madinat Al Irfane, Angle rues 5
the digging and investigation of the Natufi an culture, a semi-
et 7, Rabat-Instituts, 10 000 Rabat, Morocco. E-mail:
sedentary community of Terminal Pleistocene foragers in
[email protected])
Hayonim cave. He co-directed the excavations at Netiv
Hagdud, an early Neolithic settlement in the Jordan Valley.
Brian Boyd is Adjunct Assistant Professor of Anthropology
In 2004-05 he co-directed the excava tions at Yuchanyan cave
and Project Co-ordinator of the Center for Archaeology at
(Hunan Province) with J. Yuan. Currently he is involved in
Columbia University, New York. He was previously Lecturer
fi eld programmes in Georgia and China.
in Archaeology at the University of Wales Lampeter, U.K.
(Address: Department of Anthropology, Harvard University, He writes about archaeological theory, human-animal
Cambridge, MA 02138, USA. E-mail: [email protected]. relations and the prehistoric archaeology of the Levant,
edu) particularly the later Epipalaeolithic. He has published
numerous articles on these topics, and his fi rst book is entitled
Anna Belfer-Cohen (Ph.D., Hebrew University, Jerusalem, “Beyond Bones: Towards a Social Archaeology of Human-
Israel, 1981) is Full Professor at the Institute of Archaeology, Animal Relations” (Cambridge University Press).