Sources and Implications of Lead Ammunition and Fishing

68 Pages·2008·0.73 MB·English

The Wildlife Society
Sources and Implications of
Lead Ammunition and Fishing
Tackle on Natural Resources
Technical Review 08-01
June 2008

The Wildlife Society
Sources and Implications of
Lead Ammunition and Fishing
Tackle on Natural Resources
Technical Review 08-01
June 2008
The Wildlife Society
American Fisheries Society
Technical Review Committee on Lead in the Environment
The Wildlife Society American Fisheries Society
Barnett A. Rattner Chris I. Goddard
U.S. Geological Survey Great Lakes Fishery Commission
Patuxent Wildlife Research Center 2100 Commonwealth Blvd., Suite 100
Beltsville Laboratory Ann Arbor, MI 48105-1563
c/o BARC-East, Building 308
10300 Baltimore Avenue
Nancy J. Leonard
Beltsville, Maryland 20705
Michigan State University
Center for Systems Integration and Sustainability
J. Christian Franson
Department of Fisheries and Wildlife
U.S. Geological Survey 115 Manly Miles Building
National Wildlife Health Center 1405 South Harrison
6006 Schroeder Rd. East Lansing, MI 48823-5243
Madison, WI 53711-6223
Douglas Stang
Steven R. Sheffield
Bureau of Fisheries
Department of Natural Sciences New York State Department of Environmental Conservation
Bowie State University 625 Broadway
14000 Jericho Rd. Albany, NY 12233-4753
Bowie, MD 20715
and
Paul J. Wingate (Retired)
College of Natural Resources
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Minnesota Department of Natural Resources
National Capital Region – Northern Virginia Center 500 Lafayette Rd.
7054 Haycock Rd. St. Paul, MN 55155-4020
Falls Church, VA 22043
The Wildlife Society American Fisheries Society
5410 Grosvenor Lane, Suite 200 5410 Grosvenor Lane
Bethesda, MD 20814 Bethesda, MD 20814
Copyediting by Kathryn Sonant
Design by Lynn Riley Design
Foreword
Committee on the Sources and Implications of
Presidents of The Wildlife Society and the Ameri- Lead-based Ammunition and Fishing Tackle to
can Fisheries Society occasionally appoint ad hoc Natural Resources to address this important and
committees to study and report on select conser- longstanding issue. We also thank Larry R. Nelson
vation issues. These reports ordinarily appear as of the Non-toxic Ammunition Working Group of
either a Technical Review or a Position Statement. the Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies for
Review papers present technical information, and contributing some information used in this techni-
position statements are based on these reviews. cal review, Joseph P. Sullivan of Ardea Consulting,
Preliminary versions of position statements are Anthony M. Scheuhammer of the Canadian Wild-
published for review and comment by Society life Service, and W. Nelson Beyer, Moira A. McKer-
members. Following the comment period, revision, nan, Cherie V. Miller, Christopher J. Schmitt, and
and leadership approval, the statements are pub- Daniel J. Soeder of the U.S. Geological Survey for
lished as official positions of The Wildlife Society providing technical and editorial suggestions on
and the American Fisheries Society. a draft of this document. We are grateful to Laura
Both types of reports are copyrighted by the M. Bies, Associate Director of Government Affairs,
Societies, but individuals are granted permission TWS, and Gary E. Potts, Winifred B. Kessler, Rob-
to make single copies for noncommercial purposes. ert D. Brown, Thomas J. Ryder, Thomas A. Decker,
Otherwise, copies may be requested from: and Bruce Thompson of TWS Council Technical
Review Subcommittee for their guidance and re-
The Wildlife Society view of previous drafts of this document.
5410 Grosvenor Lane, Suite 200
Bethesda, MD [phone]
Charge to the Committee
Fax: [phone]
Conduct an overview of the technical literature
American Fisheries Society addressing (1) sources of lead that originate from
5410 Grosvenor Lane hunting, shooting sports, and fishing activities, (2)
Bethesda, MD [phone] the hazard and risk that lead from these activities
Fax: [phone] pose to natural resources, and (3) the management
implications for fish and wildlife professionals and
Citation: Rattner, B.A., J.C. Franson, S.R. Shef- policy makers. This document may be used to pre-
field, C.I. Goddard, N.J. Leonard, D. Stang, and pare policy statements by the American Fisheries
P.J. Wingate. Sources and Implications of Lead- Society and The Wildlife Society on the hazards of
based Ammunition and Fishing Tackle to Natural lead-based ammunition and fishing tackle.
Resources. Wildlife Society Technical Review. The
Wildlife Society, Bethesda, Maryland, USA.
Disclaimer
The opinions and views communicated in this
Acknowledgments
document are not necessarily those of the govern-
We wish to thank past-Presidents Robert J. War- ment agencies (U.S. Geological Survey, Great Lakes
ren, Richard A. Lancia, and John F. Organ of The Fishery Commission, New York State Department
Wildlife Society (TWS) Council, and Chris Kohler of Environmental Conservation, Minnesota Depart-
and Barbara Knuth of the American Fisheries ment of Natural Resources) with which some of the
Society (AFS) for appointing the Technical Review authors are affiliated.

Table of Contents
Foreword 3 Regulations and Bans on Lead
Ammunition and Fishing Tackle 33
Acknowledgments 3
Results of Current Lead Bans for Hunting,
Charge to the Committee 3
Shooting Sports, and Fishing Activities 35
Disclaimer 3
Alternatives to Lead and Their Current
Use in Hunting, Shooting Sports, and
Synopsis 7
Fishing Activities 36
Introduction 8
Research and Monitoring Needs on
Sources and Estimated Quantities Exposure and Effects of Lead Shot,
of Lead from Hunting, Shooting Bullets, and Fishing Tackle on
Sports, and Fishing Activities 10 Organisms and Their Habitat 39
Biogeochemistry and Physicochemical Summary 40
Properties of Lead 12
Management Implications 41
Pathways of Exposure to Lead from
References 44
Hunting, Shooting Sports, and
Fishing Activities 14
Appendices 55
Exposure to and Effects of Lead from
Various Sources in Plants, Animals,
and Humans 16
Exposure to and Effects of Ingested
Lead Shot, Bullets, and Fishing
Tackle by Fish, Amphibians, Reptiles,
Birds, and Mammals Including Humans 25

SYNOPSIS food items, and fragments emanating from shooting
ranges can ultimately result in elevated tissue con-
A technical review of lead sources that originate from centrations in birds and small mammals and cause
hunting, shooting sports, and fishing activities was hematological changes and pathological lesions. For
undertaken by the American Fisheries Society and anthropogenic activities such as mining and smelting,
The Wildlife Society. lead concentrated in sediments (lead in silt, fine par-
Lead is a naturally occurring metal in the environ- ticulates, and pore water) can also be lethal to aquatic
ment. In biological systems, it is a nonessential metal invertebrates, fish and waterbirds.
with no functional or beneficial role at the molecular There is evidence documenting ingestion of spent
and cellular levels of organization. Its use in am- shot and bullets, lost fishing sinkers and tackle, and
munition and fishing tackle dates back hundreds to related fragments by reptiles, birds, and mammals.
thousands of years, respectively. Realization of the Ingestion of some of these elemental lead artifacts
hazards of lead shot to waterfowl can be traced to the can be accompanied by a range of effects (molecular
late 1870s, while the hazards of lead fishing sinkers to to behavioral) in individuals and potentially even
birds became well recognized in the 1970s with lead population-level consequences in some species (e.g.,
poisoning of swans in Britain. By the 1980s, Britain waterfowl, eagles, condors). Fish can ingest sink-
and some jurisdictions within the United States and ers, jigs, and hooks, but unlike higher vertebrates,
Canada began placing restrictions on the use of lead mortality seems to be related to injury, blood loss,
shot and fishing sinkers. exposure to air, and exhaustion rather than lead
Large quantities of lead ammunition and fishing toxicosis. There are no data demonstrating the inges-
tackle are produced annually. Estimates of lost fish- tion of spent shot or bullets by invertebrates, fish,
ing tackle are much less than the quantity of spent or amphibians. Numerous reports in the medical
ammunition at waterfowl hunting areas and target literature describe accidental or purposeful ingestion
ranges. Nonetheless, lost fishing tackle poses a toxi- of lead fragments in humans. Lead shot and sinkers
cological threat to some waterbird species. can be retained in the appendix and digestive tract,
Lead from spent ammunition and lost fishing and in some instances (particularly in children) lead
tackle is not readily released into aquatic and terres- artifacts are surgically removed to minimize exposure
trial systems. Lead artifacts can be relatively stable and adverse effects.
and intact for decades to centuries. Nevertheless, Lead poisoning related to spent ammunition and
under some environmental conditions (e.g., soft lost fishing tackle has been most studied in avian
acidic water, acidic soil), lead can weather and be species, and at least two studies indicate that the ban
mobilized from such artifacts, yielding free dissolved on the use of lead shot for hunting waterfowl and
lead, precipitates, and complex species with inorganic coots in North America has been successful in reduc-
and organic matter. Dissolved, complex species and ing lead exposure in waterfowl. Nonetheless, other
particulate lead can be adsorbed onto or incorpo- species including upland game (e.g., doves, quail)
rated into the surface of plants. In soil and sediment, and scavengers (e.g., vultures, eagles) continue to
various forms of lead can become adsorbed, taken be exposed, and in some instances populations (e.g.,
up by tissues, and entrained in the digestive tract of California condor) may be at risk. Accordingly, many
invertebrates. Lead that is released from artifacts states have instituted restrictions on the use of lead
can evoke a range of biochemical, physiological, and ammunition to minimize effects on upland game birds
behavioral effects in some species and life stages and scavengers. The hazard of ingested lead sinkers
of invertebrates, fish, amphibians, and terrestrial and fishing tackle is well-documented in swans and
vertebrates and can exceed criteria for protecting loons, and restrictions on the sale and use of lead
some biota (e.g., water quality criteria for inverte- weights have been instituted in the United Kingdom,
brates). Lead in soil, adsorbed or incorporated into Canada, numerous other countries, and several states
Sources and Implications of Lead Ammunition and Fishing Tackle on Natural Resources 7
in the United States to minimize effects on these and activities (1) is adequately regulated and the toxico-
other species. There are only limited data on lead logical consequences of ingestion of lead are cur-
ingestion at shooting ranges by terrestrial vertebrates, rently considered acceptable, (2) could be restricted
and reproductive rates and estimation of population in locations where lead poses an unacceptable
parameters of wildlife at these sites have not been hazard to biota and their supporting habitat, or (3)
adequately investigated. The hazards of spent am- could be phased out with a goal of complete elimi-
munition and lost fishing gear to fish populations are nation. The leadership of both the American Fisher-
unknown but suspected to be minimal. ies Society and The Wildlife Society could interact
There has been an extensive effort in the develop- with various entities to disseminate information
ment, efficacy testing, and regulation of alternatives about hazards and toxic effects of lead ammunition
to lead shot for hunting waterfowl and coots. Envi- and tackle, as well as the availability and ecological
ronmentally safe alternatives have been approved and benefits of safe alternatives.
currently are available in North America and else-
where. Environmentally safe (non-lead) alternatives
INTRODUCTION
for some other types of hunting (e.g., shot for some
upland birds, bullets for large game) and for target
shooting are more recent developments, and use of Lead (Pb) is a nonessential heavy metal with no
these alternatives is not widespread. Many substitutes known functional or beneficial role in biological
for lead fishing tackle have entered the marketplace in systems at the molecular and cellular levels of or-
recent years. Some, but not all, lead-substitute metals ganization. It had numerous uses in ancient Egypt,
in fishing tackle have been previously deemed safe and its biocidal properties were well known at that
if ingested by waterfowl and some other birds and time (Eisler 2000, Hernberg 2000). The presence of
mammals. Less is known about the potential hazard lead in water pipes, cosmetics, and pottery, and its
of these alternatives to lower vertebrates. use in wine preparation, has been hypothesized as
The overall understanding of the hazards of lead contributing factors to the fall of the Roman Empire
used in shot, bullets, and fishing tackle would benefit (Eisler 2000, Hernberg 2000, Pattee and Pain 2003,
from research generating toxicological and environ- Needleman 2004). The use of lead fishing net sinkers
mental chemistry data, and monitoring and model- dates back to the Bronze age (Pulak 1988, Galili et al
ing of exposure and effects. Those of highest priority 2002), and the appearance of lead shot and bullets
include (1) broad scale monitoring on the incidence parallels the development of gunpowder and firearms
of lead poisoning in wildlife in countries where the in the 14th century (Tunis 1954).
extent of the problem is poorly documented or un- Lead is one of the easiest metals to mine and
known, (2) data on the prevalence of lead poisoning smelt (Pattee and Pain 2003). Use of lead increased
related to fishing tackle in reptiles and aquatic birds, dramatically during the Industrial Revolution, and
(3) information on the weathering, dissolution, and was widely used during the 1900s as a gasoline ad-
long-term fate of lead fragments, and bioavailability ditive. Anthropogenic emissions of lead in urban
of lead in various aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems, centers have resulted in its global distribution. In
(4) the hazards of spent ammunition and mobilized remote polar regions, lead concentrations in ice
lead to wildlife at or near shooting ranges, and (5) layers are two orders of magnitude greater than
evaluation of the results of regulations restricting the in prehistoric times (Pattee and Pain 2003). On a
use of lead ammunition and fishing tackle on expo- worldwide basis, approximately 3.6 million metric
sure and health of biota in various ecosystems. tons of lead are refined annually and major uses
If the American Fisheries Society or The Wildlife currently include storage batteries, cable sheathing,
Society seek to prepare position statements on the pigments, and chemicals, as well as alloys and am-
continued use of lead in ammunition and fishing munition (Eisler 2000).
tackle, there are at least three position options. The adverse health effects evoked by lead exposure
Namely, the introduction of lead into the environ- have been long recognized. Lead-induced encephal-
ment from hunting, shooting sports, and fishing opathy and behavioral changes have been described
8 The Wildlife Society Technical Review 08-01 May/June 2008