Sonochemistry and the Acoustic Bubble

284 Pages·2015·22.47 MB·English

by  Franz Grieser

Sonochemistry and the
Acoustic Bubble
Edited by
Franz Grieser
School of Chemistry, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
Pak-Kon Choi
Department of Physics, Meiji University, Kawasaki, Kanagawa, Japan
Naoya Enomoto
Department of Applied Chemistry, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
Hisashi Harada
Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Meisei University,
Hino, Tokyo, Japan
Kenji Okitsu
Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka Prefecture University,
Sakai, Osaka, Japan
Kyuichi Yasui
National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST),
Nagoya, Aichi, Japan
AMSTERDAM BOSTON HEIDELBERG LONDON NEWYORK OXFORD
PARIS SANDIEGO SANFRANCISCO SINGAPORE SYDNEY TOKYO
Elsevier
Radarweg29,POBox211,1000AEAmsterdam, Netherlands
The Boulevard,LangfordLane,Kidlington,OxfordOX51GB,UK
225WymanStreet,Waltham,MA02451,USA
Copyright©2015Elsevier Inc.Allrightsreserved.
Nopart ofthispublicationmaybereproduced ortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronic or
mechanical, includingphotocopying,recording,oranyinformationstorageand retrievalsystem,without
permission inwriting fromthepublisher.Detailsonhowtoseekpermission,furtherinformationaboutthe
Publisher’spermissionspolicies andourarrangementswithorganizationssuchastheCopyrightClearance
Center andtheCopyrightLicensingAgency,canbefoundatourwebsite:www.elsevier.com/permissions.
Thisbookandtheindividualcontributionscontainedinitare protected undercopyrightbythePublisher
(otherthanasmaybenotedherein).
Notices
Knowledgeandbestpracticeinthisfieldareconstantly changing.Asnewresearchandexperiencebroaden
ourunderstanding, changesinresearchmethods,professionalpractices, ormedicaltreatment maybecome
necessary.
Practitioners andresearchersmust alwaysrelyontheirownexperience andknowledgeinevaluatingandusing
anyinformation,methods,compounds,orexperimentsdescribedherein.Inusingsuchinformationormethods
theyshouldbemindfuloftheirownsafetyand thesafetyofothers,includingpartiesforwhomtheyhavea
professional responsibility.
Tothefullestextentofthelaw,neitherthePublishernortheauthors,contributors,oreditors,assumeany
liabilityforanyinjuryand/ordamagetopersonsorpropertyasamatterofproductsliability,negligenceor
otherwise,orfromanyuseoroperationofanymethods,products,instructions,orideascontainedinthe
material herein.
ISBN:978-0-12-801530-8
British LibraryCataloguinginPublication Data
Acatalogue recordforthisbookisavailablefrom theBritishLibrary
LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-Publication Data
Acatalogrecordforthisbookisavailablefrom theLibraryofCongress
ForInformationonallElsevierpublicationsvisit
ourwebsiteathttp://store.elsevier.com/
TransferredtoDigitalPrintingin2015
OntheCover:Photosofsonoluminescence (SL)andsonochemiluminescence (SCL)obtainedindifferent
aqueoussystemsundervariousconditions: Lefttoright:(1)SLfrom waterusingahorn-typetransducer at
24kHz,(2)SLfrom waterinacylindrical reactorusingaplate-typetransducer at151kHz,(3)SLfroman
aqueousNaCl solutioninacylindricalreactor usingaplate-typetransducer at138kHz, (4)SCLfrom an
aqueousluminolsolutioninarectangularreactor.Ultrasonic fieldsaresuperposedbyusingdualtransducers
of472kHz(fromtheleftside)and422kHz(fromthebottom).(5)SLfromanaqueousNaCl solutionusinga
horn-type transducerat24kHz,and (6)SCLfrom anaqueousluminolsolutionusing422kHzultrasound
propagatingfrom thebottomupwardtotheliquidsurface.Images(4)and(6)arereprinted withpermission
from K.Yasuda,T.Torii,K.Yasui,Y.Iida,T.Tuziuti,M.Nakamura,andY.Asakura,Ultrason.Sonochem.
14(2007)699.Copyright2007ElsevierPublishing.(SeeChapters4and6 fordetails).
List of Contributors
Yoshiyuki Asakura Honda Electronics Co., Ltd., Toyohashi, Aichi, Japan
Pak-Kon Choi Department of Physics, Meiji University, Kawasaki, Kanagawa, Japan
Naoya Enomoto Department of Applied Chemistry, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
Franz Grieser School of Chemistry, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
Hisashi Harada Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Meisei University, Hino, Tokyo,
Japan
Takahide Kimura Department of Chemistry, Shiga University of Medical Science, Otsu, Shiga,
Japan
Takashi Kondo Department of Radiological Sciences, Graduate School of Medicine and Pharma-
ceutical Sciences, University of Toyama
Shinobu Koda Department of Molecular Design and Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering,
Nagoya University, Nagoya, Aichi, Japan
Hiroyasu Nomura Department of Molecular Design and Engineering, Graduate School of
Engineering, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Aichi, Japan
Kenji Okitsu Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka Prefecture University, Sakai, Osaka, Japan
Shigemi Saito School of Marine Science and Technology, Tokai University, Shizuoka, Japan
Keiji Yasuda Department of Chemical Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Nagoya
University, Nagoya, Aichi, Japan
Kyuichi Yasui National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Nagoya,
Aichi, Japan
xi
Preface (English Edition)
This book has been written to provide a comprehensive but basic overview of how
ultrasound can be used to initiate, enhance, and, in general, act on chemical reactions and
systems. It aims to provide coverage of the field of sonochemistry at an introductory level
more broadly than found in specialist monographs. As ultrasound reactors are widely used
in both the laboratory and in commercial processes, the book provides a useful
fundamental understanding on what lies behind the application in play.
The book is a carefully structured beginner’s guide to acoustic cavitation phenomena,
i.e., the formation and subsequent collapse of micro-bubbles in a liquid exposed to
ultrasound. It sets out to consolidate what is known about how ultrasound acts on bubbles,
and the chemical and physical consequences of its exposure to a broad range of systems.
Ultrasound’s chemical effects (sonochemistry) are caused by the radicals formed inside
bubbles during their collapse (implosion) as a consequence of the extreme temperatures
and pressures created within such bubbles. These free radicals are the basis of many
chemical reactions, including electron transfer reactions, new stable compound formation,
initiation of polymerization processes, as well as oxidation reactions leading to molecular
degradation. The implosion of micro-bubbles also generates physical effects that come
from fluid flow in the form of microstreaming, microjets of fluid, and flow from the shock
waves produced.
The subject matter has been approached from an introductory basis but the reader would
benefit most if they had a basic knowledge of physics and chemistry. Irrespective of this,
many examples of ultrasound-driven effects and practical applications are described.
Included are problems (and solutions) to help the interested reader comprehend/digest
some of the material presented. Each chapter has a collection of references, both to
specialist studies and to reviews, for further reading in those areas of particular interest.
The book is substantively a translation of the Japanese book entitled “The Acoustic Bubble
and Sonochemistry” edited by Pak-Kon Choi, Naoya Enomoto, Hisashi Harada, and Kenji
Okitsu, a monograph of the Acoustical Science Series, edited by the Acoustical Society of
Japan and published by Corona Publishing Co., Ltd, Tokyo in 2012. In this English
xiii
Preface (English Edition)
edition, Chapter 11 has been newly added, and some refinements made in the other
chapters, such as the addition of Questions and Answers.
We believe there is a need for a textbook on the fundamental principles and experimental
methods of the field, as well as an informative evaluation of its (potential) applications in
chemical engineering, organic and inorganic synthesis, and medical, environmental, and
food processing technologies. The book should be a useful resource and instructional
platform to the field for a broad range of researchers, engineers, and as well as serve as a
textbook for students. This has been the reason for adapting the original Japanese version
of this book into English. We hope that many nonspecialists in the area will find the book
an enlightening introduction to the constantly developing field of sonochemistry.
The Editors, November, 2014.
xiv
Preface (From Japanese Edition)
Two broad categories exist in the application of ultrasound. One application area lies in
communications, and the other with high-power implementations. Ultrasound is used
widely and popularly in the field of communications, where the velocity and transit time of
ultrasonic waves are measured to determine the position and size of a substance or a void
in a sound medium. Such “signal” applications of ultrasound reach pervasively into our
daily lives, such as in medical diagnosis, nondestructive testing, sonar, and surface acoustic
wave (SAW) filters in cellular phones. The other important application domain of
ultrasound is with high-power (energetic) uses such as ultrasonic cleaning, cell disruption,
emulsification, and humidification (water atomization). In these applications, high-intensity
ultrasound brings about physical, chemical, biological effects, as well as their combined
actions, with respect to chemical reactions and physical interactions among the various
materials and substances exposed to ultrasound.
In the authoritative book on ultrasonics in Japan, Ultrasonics Handbook (Cho-onpa
Gijutsu Binran) (Ed. Saneyoshi et al., Nikkan Kogyo Shinbun, 1978), it is stated that the
high-power use of ultrasound is less advanced than the “signal” use because high-intensity
sonicators are expensive. Even in the revised version of the handbook (Cho-onpa Binran,
Maruzen 1999) published two decades later, the segment concerning the application of
high-power ultrasound is still less than 10%, in spite of the great reduction in the cost of
equipment over the intervening time. The main reason for this is not merely cost but also
that the fundamentals behind high-power ultrasound are established to a lesser extent than
those of communications ultrasound.
What are the essential difficulties and problems in the science and technology of
high-power ultrasound? Most of the high-power applications deal with a liquid medium.
In ultrasonic cleaning, for instance, we place items that we want to clean in an ultrasound-
activated water bath. Then, tiny bubbles created by the ultrasonic irradiation “wash out”
the contaminant material. Since the bubbles (or cavities) are formed by the action of sound
waves, we call this phenomenon “acoustic cavitation” (or ultrasonic cavitation), and the
created bubbles are called “acoustic bubbles” (or acoustic cavitation bubbles). Note that
the origin and behavior of such bubbles are highly complicated; we have been gradually
xv
Preface (From Japanese Edition)
shedding light upon them over the last w10years. In order to effectively use high-power
ultrasound in practice, we require a detailed understanding of the behavior of acoustic
bubbles and how to control them.
Another issue inherent with acoustic cavitation is that it requires diverse knowledge and
various techniques in many fields of science and technology. That is, not only fundamental
“physics,” such as acoustics, fluid mechanics, and thermodynamics, but also chemistry,
biology, and “medical science” needs to be grasped as well, depending on the application
field. As few fundamental and standard textbooks on high-power applications of ultrasound
have been published so far, it may not be easy for specialists in ultrasonics to handle living
cells, or it may be inconvenient for organochemical specialists to modify a commercially
available sonicator suitable for their specific application.
In order to break down such “walls” among the various fields of application, we attempt to
explain the basic points and the various applications of high-power ultrasound in the
present textbook, assuming that the reader is a basic beginner in any field. (The title of the
book “Sonochemistry” implies that not only chemical but also biological and medical
applications are included.) The overall contents are as follows,
Chapter 1: Brief history of sonochemistry
Chapters 2e5: Basics of ultrasound, acoustic bubbles, and sonoluminescence
Chapters 6e10: Applications in various fields.
For further study in each field, each chapter provides the original references through which
we encourage the readers to deepen their knowledge.
Finally, we thank the Acoustical Society of Japan (since 1936) and the Japan Society of
Sonochemistry (since 1992, 20th Anniversary Publication) for their generous contributions
to the publication of this book.
September 2012
The Editors, Japan
xvi
CHAPTER 1
What Is Sonochemistry?
Hiroyasu Nomura, Shinobu Koda
Department of Molecular Design and Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Nagoya
University, Nagoya, Aichi, Japan
Chapter Outline
1.1 Sonochemistry 1
1.2 History of Sonochemistry 2
References 7
1.1 Sonochemistry
“Ultrasound” is defined as sound above the frequency of 20kHz, which human beings
cannot hear. In nature, dolphins and bats, for example, transmit and receive ultrasound
below around 100kHz. In 1917, Langevin, using the piezoelectric effect discovered by
Curie, created a Langevin transducer made of a quartz oscillator sandwiched between two
pieces of thick iron plates that enabled the generation of artificial ultrasound with high
output power. The work of Langevin significantly stimulated research dealing with
ultrasound, and this led to the extension of applications of ultrasound into a variety of
areas, such as physical acoustics, sonar, fishfinder, and medical diagnostics, among others.
The first report on the physical and biological effects of ultrasound was published by
Wood and Loomis in 1927 [1]. This article is widely considered to be the one that gave
birth to the discipline of sonochemistry; the term “sonochemistry” first appeared in the
title of an article by Weissler in 1953 [2]. Nowadays, “sonochemistry” is recognized as an
academic term and is commonly used. Sonochemistry is a field in chemistry and physics
that deals with the short-lived, localized field of high pressure and high temperature
produced through ultrasonic cavitation. In 1964, El’piner published the first monograph on
sonochemistry titled “Ultrasound: Physical, Chemical, and Biological Effects,” which was
translated from Russian by Sinclar [3].
Ultrasonic cavitation may be produced by irradiating high-power ultrasound, with a
frequency of 20kHz to several MHz, intowater and many other liquids. The phenomenon
can be readily observed in an ultrasonic cleaner. Figure 1.1 displays the growth and
implosion of small bubbles induced by ultrasound. The bubbles generated by ultrasound
SonochemistryandtheAcousticBubble.http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-801530-8.00001-3
Copyright©2015ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved. 1
2 Chapter 1
Figure 1.1
Scheme of bubble growth and collapse on ultrasound.
reach a critical size over a few acoustic cycles and, following the growth of these bubbles,
they rapidly implode. There is almost no heat transfer between the inside of bubbles and
the surrounding liquid during the rapid inertial collapse of the bubbles. Under the
assumption that the compression process is adiabatic, the temperature and pressurewithin
the core of bubbles undergoing contraction reach thousands of degrees Kelvin and several
hundred atmospheres, respectively. This localized field with high temperature and high
pressure is called the “hot spot,” which is the source of the chemical and physical effects
induced by acoustic cavitation. This localized high-temperature condition subsequently
delivers heat rapidly to the surrounding liquid, which is at ambient temperature, and
consequently creates a rapidly cooling temperature gradient in the vicinity of bubbles at a
rate of the order of 109K/s. The pressure at some point distant from the bubbles is made up
of the sum of hydrostatic pressure and acoustic pressure and ranges from 1atm to several
atmospheres. Therefore, under conditions where large differences exist between the high
pressures inside and outside a bubble, the relief of such a situation generates shock waves.
In essence, sonochemistry is a field of science that deals with phenomena and reactions
induced by shock waves generated by rapidly released localized pressure and by radicals
formed in and/or around bubbles from the thermal decomposition of molecules in the
system, both of which originate from ultrasonic cavitation. In the chemical industry,
processes using ultrasound are referred to as sonochemical processes and will be described
in detail in Chapter 6.
1.2 History of Sonochemistry
The article of Wood and Loomis has become a landmark report in the field and must not
be forgotten in detailing the history of sonochemistry. Wood and Loomis investigated the
effects of ultrasound onvarious phenomena, using ultrasound of 100e700kHz frequency
and a 2-kWoscillator based on a quartz plate (7e14mm thickness) [1]. The
What Is Sonochemistry? 3
sonochemistry described in their report included emulsion preparation, atomization,
particle aggregation, the acceleration of chemical reactions, crystal segregation and
growth, the dispersion of colloidal soil, effects on bactericidal activity, and other actions.
Although they presented a preliminary survey of the effects of ultrasound, the results had a
strong influence on the subsequent development of sonochemistry.
In 1929, Schmitt et al. published a report on the chemical oxidation effects of ultrasound
[4]. Further, in 1935, Frenzel and Schultes irradiated a photographic plate that was set in
water with acoustic waves and found that the plate had been exposed to light. The
phenomenon opened the way to sonoluminescence and sonochemiluminescence research,
conducted even to the present day [5]. In 1935, as the first study of the effects of
ultrasound on electrochemistry, Claus and Hall reported that microparticles of silver and
mercury synthesized in an electrode reaction under ultrasonic irradiation are fine and have
a high dispersibility [6]. In 1938, Porter and Young reported that ultrasonic waves induce
the rearrangement of molecules and accelerate phenyl isocyanate generation from
benzamide (C H CON ) [7]. Although a detailed investigation was not reported, it can still
6 5 3
be said that this was the first research undertaken on the application of ultrasound in
organic chemistry.
In1932,Oyama(ElectricEngineering,TohokuImperialUniversity,Japan)repeatedthe
experimentsof WoodandLoomiswithahigh-powerultrasoundgenerator,andthework
markedthebeginningofbasicresearchonapplicationsofhigh-powerultrasoundinJapan.In
1933,Oyamapresented“OntheIntenseSupersonicsanditsApplications,”inwhichthe
authorreportednotonlyonthemeasurementsofacousticpressureandthecoefficientof
soundabsorptionbutalsoontheaccelerationoftheprecipitationrateofironpowderin
aqueouscoppersulfatesolutions[8].Itwasthefirstreporttodealwiththeaccelerationof
chemicalchangesbyultrasound.Oyamaalsoreportedonultrasound-drivenemulsification,
colloidalgoldaggregationanddispersion,proteinaggregation,andchangeinthesolutionpH.
In 1993, Moriguchi presented a series of reports titled “Influence of Ultrasound on
Chemical Phenomenon” and found that ultrasound accelerated gas-evolving reactions in a
hetero phase system consisting of zinc and hydrochloric acid or sulfuric acid [9]. Sata
studied ultrasonic degradation of macromolecules and the effects of ultrasound on
colloidal dispersions [10]. In 1936, Kusano investigated the ultrasound induced
decomposition of KI and H O in aqueous solutions [11]. Studies on chemical reactions by
2 2
ultrasonic irradiation have steadily progressed over the years since the pioneering
experiments by Wood and Loomis.
In the late 1930s, the now famous studies on polymer degradation were reported from the
laboratories of Schmid and Weissler. Schmid et al. reported the decrease of molecular
weight and viscosity of polystyrene solutions with increasing sonication time [12].
Weissler found not only a decrease of viscosity with sonication time but also an abrupt