Sonar and underwater acoustics

399 Pages·2009·12.3 MB·English

by  Jean-Paul Marage

Edited by
Roman Gr. Maev
Advances in Acoustic
Microscopy and High
Resolution Imaging
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Edited by Roman Gr. Maev
Advances in Acoustic Microscopy and
High Resolution Imaging
From Principles to Applictaions
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V
Contents
List of Contributors XIII
Introduction XVII
Author Biographies XIX
Part One Fundamentals 1
1 From Multiwave Imaging to Elasticity Imaging 3
Mathias Fink and Mickael Tanter
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Regimes of Spatial Resolution 3
1.3 The Multiwave Approach 4
1.4 Wave to Wave Generation 5
1.5 Wave to Wave Tagging 7
1.6 Wave to Wave Imaging: Mapping Elasticity 8
1.7 Super-resolution in Supersonic Shear Wave Imaging 14
1.8 Clinical Applications 16
1.9 Conclusion 19
References 21
2 Imaging via Speckle Interferometry and Nonlinear Methods 23
Jeffrey Sadler and Roman Gr. Maev
2.1 General Introduction 23
2.2 Part I: Speckle Interferometry 24
2.2.1 Introduction 24
2.2.2 Labeyrie’s Method 25
2.2.3 Knox–Thompson Method 29
2.2.4 Importance of Phase Difference Calculation 32
2.2.5 Labeyrie and Knox–Thompson in Two Dimensions 33
2.2.6 Other Improvements to Speckle Interferometry 34
2.3 Part II: Nonlinear Imaging 34
2.3.1 Introduction 34
2.3.2 Deviation (Difference Squared), or Absolute Difference 36
VI Contents
2.3.3 Fourier Transform-Based Methodology 36
2.3.4 Fourier Methodology: How to Create an Image 38
2.3.5 Fourier Transform: Problems with Using 39
2.3.6 Hilbert Transform-Based Methodology 39
2.3.7 Hilbert Methodology: How to Create an Image, and
3D Image 42
2.4 Summary and Closing 44
Selected References (By Subject) 45
Speckle: Base Methods 45
Speckle: More Advanced Methods 45
Nonlinear Imaging 45
Part Two Novel Developments in Advanced Imaging Techniques
and Methods 47
3 Fundamentals and Applications of a Quantitative Ultrasonic
Microscope for Soft Biological Tissues 49
Kazuto Kobayashi and Naohiro Hozumi
3.1 General Introduction: Basic Idea of an Ultrasonic Microscope for
Biological Tissues 49
3.2 Sound Speed Profile 50
3.2.1 Fundamentals 50
3.2.2 Specimen to be Observed 50
3.2.3 Experimental Setup and Acquired Signal 51
3.2.4 Calculation of Sound Speed 52
3.2.4.1 Frequency Domain Analysis 52
3.2.4.2 Time–Frequency Domain Analysis 54
3.2.5 Two-Dimensional Sound Speed Profiles 56
3.2.6 Attempts at Better Spatial Resolution 58
3.3 Acoustic Impedance Profile 60
3.3.1 Fundamentals 60
3.3.2 Experimental Setup 61
3.3.3 Specimen to be Observed 62
3.3.4 Acquired Signal 63
3.3.5 Calibration for Characteristic Acoustic Impedance 63
3.3.6 Observation of Cerebellar Cortex of a Rat 65
3.3.7 Cell Size Observation 67
3.3.8 Commercialized Equipment 69
3.4 Summary 70
References 70
4 Portable Ultrasonic Imaging Devices 71
Sergey A. Titov, Roman Gr. Maev, and Fedar M. Severin
References 91
Contents VII
5 High-Frequency Ultrasonic Systems for High-Resolution Ranging
and Imaging 93
Michael Vogt and Helmut Ermert
5.1 General Introduction 93
5.2 High-Frequency Ultrasonic System Components 94
5.2.1 Ultrasound Echo Systems 94
5.2.2 Transmitter and Receiver Components for High-Frequency Ultrasonic
Echo Systems 95
5.2.3 Spectral and Range Resolution Properties 97
5.2.4 Measurement and Optimization of the Pulse Transfer Properties 99
5.2.5 Range Resolution Optimization: Inverse Echo Signal Filtering 101
5.2.6 Measurement of Acoustic Scattering Parameters in Plane Wave
Propagation 102
5.3 Engineering Concepts for High-Frequency Ultrasonic Imaging 104
5.3.1 Single-Element Transducer B-Scan Techniques 104
5.3.2 Lateral Resolution Optimization 105
5.3.2.1 B/D-Scan Technique 106
5.3.2.2 Synthetic Aperture Focusing Techniques (SAFT) 106
5.3.3 Limited Angle Spatial Compounding (LASC) 110
5.3.4 Multidirectional Tissue Characterization 112
5.4 High-Frequency Ultrasound Imaging in Biomedical Applications 115
5.4.1 Skin Imaging 115
5.4.2 Imaging of Small Animals 117
5.5 Summary 118
References 119
6 Quantitative Acoustic Microscopy Based on the Array Approach 125
Sergey Titov and Roman Gr. Maev
6.1 General Introduction 125
6.2 Measurement of Velocity and Attenuation of Leaky Waves 126
6.3 Measurement of Bulk Wave Velocities and Thickness of
Specimen 141
6.4 Conclusions 150
References 150
Part Three Advanced Biomedical Applications 153
7 Study of the Contrast Mechanism in an Acoustic Image for Thickly
Sectioned Melanoma Skin Tissues with Acoustic Microscopy 155
Bernhard R. Tittmann, Chiaki Miyasaka, Elena Maeva, and David Shum
7.1 Introduction 155
7.1.1 What Is Melanoma? 155
7.1.2 How Is Melanoma Diagnosed? 156
VIII Contents
7.1.3 Present Problems for Biopsy 157
7.1.4 Objective of Present Study 157
7.2 Physical and Mathematical Modeling for Five Layer Wave Propagation
in an Acoustic Microscope 158
7.3 Sample Preparation 162
7.4 Digital Imaging – Optical and Ultrasonic 163
7.4.1 Optical Image 163
7.4.2 Acoustic Imaging Principle (Pulse-Wave Mode) 164
7.4.3 Resolution 168
7.4.4 Acoustic Images 169
7.4.5 Waveform Analysis 171
7.5 High Frequency Acoustic Microscopy 174
7.5.1 Normal Control Skin Tissue 174
7.5.2 Abnormal Skin Tissue 175
7.5.3 Acoustic Velocity 175
7.5.4 Computer Simulation 177
7.5.4.1 Experimental V(z) Curve 177
7.5.4.2 Theoretical V(z) Curve (Simulation of V(z) Curve) 178
7.6 Conclusions 181
Acknowledgment 183
References 183
8 New Concept of Pathology – Mechanical Properties Provided by
Acoustic Microscopy 187
Yoshifumi Saijo
8.1 Introduction 187
8.2 Principle of Acoustic Microscopy 188
8.3 Application to Cellular Imaging 189
8.4 Application to Hard Tissues 191
8.5 Application to Soft Tissues 193
8.5.1 Gastric Cancer 193
8.5.2 Myocardial Infarction 195
8.5.3 Kidney 197
8.5.4 Atherosclerosis 197
8.6 Ultrasound Speed Microscopy (USM) 200
8.7 Articular Tissues 202
8.8 Summary 202
References 204
9 Quantitative Scanning Acoustic Microscopy of Bone 207
Pascal Laugier, Amena Saïed, Mathilde Granke, and Kay Raum
9.1 Introduction 207
9.1.1 Hierarchical Structure of Bone and Properties 207
9.1.2 Relevance of Multiscale Elastic Properties 209
9.1.3 History of Measurement Principles 210
Contents IX
9.2 Quantitative SAM-Based Impedance of Bone 213
9.2.1 Theory 213
9.2.2 Time-Resolved Measurements 216
9.2.3 Measurements with Time-Gated Amplitude Detection 217
9.2.3.1 Calibration 218
9.3 Tissue Mineralization, Acoustic Impedance, and Stiffness 219
9.4 Elastic Anisotropy at the Nanoscale (Lamellar) Level 222
9.5 Elastic Anisotropy at the Microscale (Tissue) Level 223
9.6 Applications in Musculoskeletal Research 225
9.7 Conclusions 226
References 228
Part Four Advanced Materials Applications 231
10 Array Imaging and Defect Characterization Using Post-processing
Approaches 233
Alexander Velichko, Paul D. Wilcox, and Bruce W. Drinkwater
10.1 Introduction 233
10.2 Modeling Array Data 237
10.2.1 Introduction 237
10.2.2 Ray-Based Description of Ultrasonic Array Data 238
10.2.2.1 Determining the Ray-Paths 238
10.2.2.2 Predicting the Signal Associated with a Ray-Path 240
10.2.2.3 Simple Example 240
10.2.3 Mathematical Model of Ultrasonic Array Data 242
10.3 Imaging with 1D Arrays 245
10.3.1 Classical Beam-Forming Imaging Methods in Post-processing 245
10.3.2 Total Focusing Method 246
10.3.3 Wavenumber Method 247
10.3.4 Back-Propagation Method 249
10.3.5 Theoretical Comparison of Imaging Methods 250
10.3.6 Computational Burden 251
10.3.7 Focusing Performance 252
10.3.8 Experimental Example 253
10.4 Imaging with 2D Arrays 255
10.4.1 Optimization of 2D Array Layout 255
10.4.1.1 Optimization Criterion 255
10.4.1.2 Regular Sampling 256
10.4.1.3 Non-uniform Sampling 257
10.4.2 Experimental Comparison of 2D Array Layouts 258
10.4.2.1 Spherical Inclusion 259
10.4.2.2 Aluminum Block with Flat Bottom Holes 260
10.4.2.3 Surface-Breaking Fatigue Crack 260
10.5 Scattering Matrices and Their Experimental Extraction 260
X Contents
10.5.1 Feature Extraction from Array Data 262
10.5.1.1 Concept 262
10.5.1.2 Inverse Imaging 263
10.5.1.3 Extraction of Scattering Matrix 266
10.6 Defect Characterization and Sizing 267
10.6.1 Crack Sizing 267
10.6.1.1 1D Array 267
10.6.1.2 2D Array 268
10.6.2 Experimental Results 269
10.6.2.1 1D Array 269
10.6.2.2 2D Array 271
10.7 Conclusions 272
References 273
11 Ultrasonic Force and Related Microscopies 277
Andrew Briggs and Oleg V. Kolosov
11.1 Introduction 277
11.2 Mechanical Diode Detection 279
11.3 Experimental UFM Implementation 280
11.4 UFM Contrast Theory 283
11.5 Quantitative Measurements of Contact Stiffness 287
11.6 UFM Picture Gallery 289
11.7 Image Interpretation – Effects of Adhesion and Topography 293
11.8 Superlubricity 295
11.9 Defects Below the Surface 297
11.10 Time-Resolved Nanoscale Phenomena 299
Acknowledgments 303
References 304
12 Ultrasonic Atomic Force Microscopy 307
Kazushi Yamanaka and Toshihiro Tsuji
12.1 Introduction 307
12.2 Principle 307
12.2.1 Forced Vibration of Cantilever from the Base 307
12.2.2 Quantitative Information, Directional Control, and Resonance
Frequency Tracking 308
12.2.3 Effective Enhancement of Cantilever Stiffness 309
12.2.4 Criterion to Avoid Plastic Deformation 309
12.3 Theory 311
12.3.1 Overview 311
12.3.2 Linear Analysis of Stiffness and the Q Factor 312
12.3.3 Linear Theory of Subsurface Imaging 314
12.3.4 Advantage of Appropriate Load 316
12.3.5 Nonlinear Analysis of Spectra 316
12.3.6 Duffing Model 318