Solving Problems: A Chemistry Handbook

287 Pages·2007·4.51 MB·English

Solving Problems
A Chemistry Handbook
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SOLVING PROBLEMS:
A CHEMISTRY HANDBOOK
SOLVING PROBLEMS:
A CHEMISTRY HANDBOOK
Contents
Chapter 1 Introduction to Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
1.1 The Stories of Two Chemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
1.2 Chemistry and Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
1.3 Scientific Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2
1.4 Scientific Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
Chapter 2 Analyzing Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
2.1 Units of Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
2.2 Scientific Notation and Dimensional Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
2.3 How reliable are measurements? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
2.4 Representing Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
Chapter 3 Matter—Properties and Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
3.1 Properties of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
3.2 Changes in Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
3.3 Mixtures of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
3.4 Elements and Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27 nc.
I
nies,
Chapter 4 The Structure of the Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31 pa
m
o
4.1 Early Theories of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31 Hill C
4.2 Subatomic Particles and the Nuclear Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31 w-
4.3 How Atoms Differ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33 McGra
4.4 Unstable Nuclei and Radioactive Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39 he
T
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Chapter 5 Electrons in Atoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41 visi
di
5.1 Light and Quantized Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41 a
Hill,
5.2 Quantum Theory and the Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43 w-
5.3 Electron Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45 Gra
Mc
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Chapter 6 The Periodic Table and Periodic Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53 Glenc
©
6.1 Development of the Modern Periodic Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53 ht
g
6.2 Classification of the Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55 yri
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6.3 Periodic Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57
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Chapter 7 Ionic Compounds and Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
7.1 Forming Chemical Bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
7.2 The Formation and Nature of Ionic Bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64
7.3 Names and Formulas for Ionic Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66
7.4 Metallic Bonds and Properties of Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
Chapter 8 Covalent Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
8.1 The Covalent Bond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
8.2 Naming Molecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
8.3 Molecular Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
8.4 Molecular Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
8.5 Electronegativity and Polarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
Chapter 9 Chemical Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
9.1 Reactions and Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
9.2 Classifying Chemical Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
9.3 Reactions in Aqueous Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87
Chapter 10 The Mole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91
Inc. 10.1 Measuring Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91
nies, 10.2 Mass and the Mole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .92
pa
om 10.3 Moles of Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95
C
Hill 10.4 Empirical and Molecular Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97
w-
Gra 10.5 The Formula for a Hydrate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102
Mc
The Chapter 11 Stoichiometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
of
on 11.1 What is stoichiometry? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
visi
di 11.2 Stoichiometric Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
a
Hill, 11.3 Limiting Reactants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112
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Gra 11.4 Percent Yield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114
Mc
ncoe/ Chapter 12 States of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117
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© 12.1 Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117
ght 12.2 Forces of Attraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .122
yri
Cop 12.3 Liquids and Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .123
12.4 Phase Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125
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Chapter 13 Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129
13.1 The Gas Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129
13.2 The Combined Gas Law and Avogadro’s Principle . . . . . . . . .131
13.3 The Ideal Gas Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .134
13.4 Gas Stoichiometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .136
Chapter 14 Mixtures and Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139
14.1 What are solutions? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139
14.2 Solution Concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .142
14.3 Colligative Properties of Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .147
14.4 Heterogeneous Mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149
Chapter 15 Energy and Chemical Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .151
15.1 Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .151
15.2 Heat in Chemical Reactions and Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .152
15.3 Thermochemical Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .154
15.4 Calculating Enthalpy Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .155
15.5 Reaction Spontaneity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .158
Chapter 16 Reaction Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .161 nc.
I
16.1 A Model for Reaction Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .161 nies,
pa
16.2 Factors Affecting Reaction Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .163 om
C
16.3 Reaction Rate Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .165 Hill
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16.4 Instantaneous Reaction Rates and Reaction Mechanisms . . . .167 Gra
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Chapter 17 Chemical Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .169 The
of
17.1 Equilibrium:A State of Dynamic Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .169 on
visi
17.2 Factors Affecting Chemical Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .173 di
a
17.3 Using Equilibrium Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .175 Hill,
w-
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Chapter 18 Acids and Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .181 Mc
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18.1 Acids and Bases:An Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .181 nc
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18.2 Strengths of Acids and Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .182 ©
18.3 What is pH? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184 ght
yri
18.4 Neutralization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .190 Cop
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Chapter 19 Redox Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .193
19.1 Oxidation and Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .193
19.2 Balancing Redox Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197
19.3 Half-Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .202
Chapter 20 Electrochemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .205
20.1 Voltaic Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .205
20.2 Types of Batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .210
20.3 Electrolysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .212
Chapter 21 Hydrocarbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .213
21.1 Alkanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .213
21.2 Cyclic Alkanes and Alkane Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .216
21.3 Alkenes and Alkynes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .218
21.4 Isomers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .221
21.5 Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Petroleum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .222
Chapter 22 Substituted Hydrocarbons and Their Reactions . .225
22.1 Functional Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .225
nc. 22.2 Alcohols,Ethers,and Amines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .227
I
nies, 22.3 Carbonyl Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229
pa 22.4 Other Reactions of Organic Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .233
m
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Hill C 22.5 Polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .235
w-
Gra Chapter 23 The Chemistry of Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .237
Mc
he 23.1 Proteins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .237
T
of 23.2 Carbohydrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .238
n
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visi 23.3 Lipids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .239
a di 23.4 Nucleic Acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .241
Hill, 23.5 Metabolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .242
w-
Gra
Mc Chapter 24 Nuclear Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .245
oe/
nc 24.1 Nuclear Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .245
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© 24.2 Radioactive Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .246
ht
yrig 24.3 Transmutation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .249
p
Co 24.4 Fission and Fusion of Atomic Nuclei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .252
24.5 Applications and Effects of Nuclear Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . .253
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SOLVING PROBLEMS:
A CHEMISTRY HANDBOOK
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .255
Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .307
A Data Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .308
A-1 SI Prefixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .308
A-2 Physical Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .309
A-3 Names and Charges of Polyatomic Ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .310
A-4 Ionization Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .311
A-5 Electronegativities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .312
A-6 Specific Heat Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .313
A-7 Molal Freezing and Boiling Point Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . .313
A-8 Heat of Formation Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .314
A-9 Periodic Table of Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315
A-10 Solubility Product Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .317
A-11 Standard Reduction Potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .318
B Logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .320
B-1 Logarithms and Antilogarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .320
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .322
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viii Chemistry: Matter and Change Solving Problems: A Chemistry Handbook
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A CHEMISTRY HANDBOOK
IInnttrroodduuccttiioonn ttoo CChheemmiissttrryy
1.1 The Stories of Two Chemicals
A chemical is any substance that has a definite composition. Ozone
is a chemical that is made up of three particles of oxygen. Ozone
forms a thick blanket above the clouds in the stratosphere. This layer
of ozone protects Earth from overexposure to ultraviolet radiation
from the Sun. You are probably familiar with the damage that expo-
sure to ultraviolet radiation can do to your skin in the form of
sunburn. Ultraviolet radiation can also harm other animals and
plants. In the 1980s, scientists documented that the ozone layer
around Earth was becoming measurably thinner in some spots.
In the 1970s, scientists had observed that large quantities of
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) had accumulated in Earth’s atmosphere.
CFCs are chemicals that contain chlorine, fluorine, and carbon.
CFCs were used as coolants in refrigerators and air conditioners and
as propellants in spray cans because they were considered relatively
nonreactive. Some scientists hypothesized that there might be a con-
nection between the concentration of CFCs in the atmosphere and
nc.
I the thinning of the ozone layer.
nies,
pa
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Co 1.2 Chemistry and Matter
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w- Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes that it undergoes.
Gra Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space. Mass is a
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he measurement of the amount of matter in an object. Everything, how-
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of ever, is not made of matter. For example, heat, light, radio waves,
n
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a di You might wonder why scientists measure matter in terms of
Hill, mass, and not in terms of weight. Your body is made of matter, and
w-
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Mc not just a measure of the amount of matter in your body. Your
ncoe/ weight also includes the effect of Earth’s gravitational pull on your
Gle body. This force is not the same everywhere on Earth. Scientists use
©
ht mass to measure matter instead of weight because they need to com-
g
pyri pare measurements taken in different locations.
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Solving Problems: A Chemistry Handbook Chemistry: Matter and Change 1
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A CHEMISTRY HANDBOOK
Matter is made up of particles, called atoms, that are so small
they cannot be seen with an ordinary light microscope. The struc-
ture, composition, and behavior of all matter can be explained by
atoms and the changes they undergo.
Because there are so many types of matter, there are many areas
of study in the field of chemistry. Chemistry is usually divided into
five branches, as summarized in the table below.
Branches of Chemistry
Branch Area of emphasis Examples
Organic most carbon-containing pharmaceuticals,
chemistry chemicals plastics
Inorganic in general, matter that minerals, metals and
chemistry does not contain carbon nonmetals, semi-
conductors
Physical the behavior and changes reaction rates,
chemistry of matter and the related reaction mechanisms
energy changes
Analytical components and food nutrients,
chemistry composition of substances quality control
nc.
Biochemistry omfa ltitveinr ga nodrg parnoicsmessses fmeermtaebnotlaistmio,n panies,I
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1.3 Scientific Methods Hill
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tion or study a situation. It is both an organized way for scientists to he
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do research and a way for scientists to verify the work of other sci- of
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entists. A typical scientific method includes making observations, visio
forming a hypothesis, performing an experiment, and arriving at a di
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conclusion. Hill,
Scientific study usually begins with observations. Often,a scien- Graw-
tist will begin with qualitative data—information that describes Mc
color,odor,shape,or some other physical characteristic that relates to oe/
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the five senses. Chemists also use quantitative data.This type of Gle
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2 Chemistry: Matter and Change Solving Problems: A Chemistry Handbook