Soldier of the Pharaoh: Middle Kingdom Egypt 2055-1650 BC

68 Pages·2007·25.31 MB·english

by  Nic Fields

Soldier of the Pharaoh
Middle Kingdom Egypt 2055-1650 Be
DrNICFIELDSstartedhis
careerasabiochemistbefore
joiningtheRoyalMarines.
Havingleftthemilitary,he
wentbacktoUniversityand
completedaBAandPhD
inAncientHistoryatthe
UniversityofNewcastle.
HewasAssistantDirectorat
theBritishSchoolatAthens,
Greece,andthenalecturer
inAncientHistoryatthe
UniversityofEdinburgh.
Nicisnowafreelanceauthor
andresearcherbasedin
south-westFrance.
PETERBULLgraduated
fromartcollegein1979and
hasworkedasafreelance
illustratorforover25years.
Hehascreatedboth
traditionalanddigitalart
forpublishersworldwide,
andalsorunsthePeterBull
ArtStudio,basedinKent,UK,
whichhefounded in1975.
PeterChestertonhasworked
closelywithPeterBullonthe
subjectmatterofthisbook.
Warrior· 121
Soldier of the Pharaoh
Middle Kingdom Egypt 2055-1650 Be
Nic Fields · Illustrated by Peter Bull
FirstpublishedinGreatBritainin2007byOspreyPublishing, Artist's note
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Readersmaycareto notethattheoriginal paintingsfrom
E-mail:[email protected]
whichthecolourplatesinthisbookwerepreparedare
availableforprivatesale. All reproduction copyright
©2007OspreyPublishingLtd.
whatsoeverisretained bythePublishers.All enquiries
Allrightsreserved.Apartfromanyfairdealingforthepurposeofprivatestudy, should beaddressedto:
research,criticismorreview,aspermittedundertheCopyright,Designsand
PatentsAct,1988,nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedina PeterBullArtStudio
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Kent
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ACIPcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary
ISBN:9781846031069 ThePublishersregretthattheycanenterintono
correspondenceuponthismatter.
PagelayoutbyMarkHolt
IndexbyGlynSutcliffe Editor's note
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OriginatedbyPDQDigitalMediaSolutionsLtd,UK
PrintedinChinathroughWorldprint Theauthorhasusedthefollowing abbreviationswithin
thetext:
07 08 09 10 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 b. (c.)- born(circa)
r. (c.)- reigned (circa)
FORACATALOGUEOFALLBOOKSPUBLISHEDBYOSPREYMILITARY fl. - florit
ANDAVIATIONPLEASECONTACT:
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NORTHAMERICA
OspreyDirect,c/oRandomHouseDistributionCenter,400HahnRoad,
Westminster,MD21157 Thisbookcontainsnumerousreferencestoancient
E-mail:[email protected] Egyptiantombs. Egyptologistshavegiventhesetombs
individual identification numbersaccordingtosite:
ALLOTHERREGIONS
OspreyDirectUK,P.O.Box140Wellingborough,Northants,NN82FA,UK
1. Beni Hasan isanecropolisontheeastbankoftheNile
E-mail:[email protected]
some23kilometresnorthofel-Minya, datingprincipally
todynastiesXI andXII.Thereare39rock-cuttombsat
www.ospreypublishing.com
Beni Hasan,severalofthem belongingtothenomarchs
oftheOryxnome.Anumberofthesearedecoratedwith
wall-paintingsthatshowmilitarythemes. Eachtombis
distinguished bytheabbreviation BH, denotingthesiteof
Beni Hasan,followed byaone-figurereferenceindicating
thetomb's numberwithinthenecropolis(e.g. BH17).
2. Meirisagroupofdecoratedrock-cuttombs, inMiddle
Egyptsome50kilometresnorth-westofmodernAsyut.
Thetombs, datingtodynastiesVI andXII, belongedto
thenomarchsofCusaeand membersoftheirfamilies,
includingthatofSenbi, anomarch underAmenemhatI.
EachtombisdistinguishedbytheabbreviationB,
denotingthesiteofMeir,followed byaone-figure
referenceindicatingthetomb'snumberwithinthe
necropolis(e.g. B1).
3. WesternThebes, nextdoortomodern Luxor, isthesite
ofthemortuarytemplesandtombsofpharaohsandhigh
officialsfromthe FirstIntermediatePeriod(DynastyXI)to
theendofthepharaonic period (332 BC). Eachtombis
distinguished bytheabbreviationTI, denotingthesite
ofWesternThebes, followed byaone-figurereference
indicatingthetomb'snumberwithinthenecropolis
(e.g.TI100).
2
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION 4
CHRONOLOGY 6
SERVING THE PHARAOH 8
RECRUITMENT AND TRAINING 10
SOLDIERS AND EQUIPMENT 13
Dress
ARCHERS 14
Bows • Arrows • Ancillaryequipment
HAND-TO-HAND FIGHTERS 18
Battleaxes • Spears • Daggers • Shields
RETAINERS 22
AUXILIARIES 23
ON WATER 24
ON LAND 31
Battle • Deathinbattle
MEDICAL TREATMENT 35
Routinerisks • Chancesofsurvival
BEYOND THE BORDER 39
TheNubianfront
ARMY LIFE 46
Garrisonlife • BorderPatrols • Punitiveraids
RELIGIOUS BELIEFS AND WAR 56
Amulets • Egyptiangods
GLOSSARY 61
BIBLIOGRAPHY 62
INDEX 64
3
SOLDIER OF THE PHARAOH:
MIDDLE KINGDOM EGYPT
2055-1650 Be
INTRODUCTION
eographyhasblessedEgyptwiththeprotectionofaseriesofsharply
definednaturalborders thatfor manycenturiesprovidedthe ideal
defence against unwelcome guests. Inhospitable deserts east and
westdemarcate thelimitsofEgyptianlifewiththesurenessandabruptness
ofasingleline, andtheshelvingbeachesoftheNile Deltapreventpassage
as effectivelyas anyfortification wall. In the south, though the land is cut
bytheNile, aseriesofsixcataractsdistributedovernearly1,400kilometres
Oneoftwowooden models
of valley makes passage in either direction extremely difficult. Secure
(Cairo, Egyptian Museum,
withinthesegeographicalboundaries,Egyptveryearlydevelopedasaneat,
JE30986)fromthetomb
self-contained, isolated unit. The bountiful Nile, whose annual flooding ofMesehtiatAsyut.Thisgroup
deposited a fertile layer ofsilteachyear, provided all life's necessities and showsEgyptianspearmen. Each
many of its luxuries - even if there was a regrettable shortage of good copperspearheadisattachedto
theshaftwithgutthread,while
indigenous timber for shipbuilding. There was no real need for anyone
theshieldsarepaintedinblack,
to venture abroad and, in the words of the Greek historian Herodotos
whiteand bufftorepresent
(b. c. 484Be), Egyptwas 'the giftofthe river' (2.5.1). cowhide.(AKG-images)
4
Yet the First Intermediate Period (2181-2055 BC), a time when the
Nile valley was divided among petty warring principalities, bore witness
to many border settlements falling prey to outsiders. The upshot of
this political disunity and instability was, of course, the increasing
militarization of Egyptian society, a process reflected in funerary art
where the peaceful domestic or agricultural scenes ofOld Kingdom art
are replaced by portrayals of warlords surrounded by their armed
retainers.Andso the pharaohs ofthe MiddleKingdom (2055-1650 BC),
though determined to keep Egyptin isolation,were obliged to paymore
attention to militaryaffairs and to frontiers than did their predecessors.
A sizeable standing army, which included foreign auxiliaries, was
maintained,andthe twonarrowpointsofentryintotheNilevalley, north
and south, were firmly plugged.
InitsOldKingdomphaseEgypthadpursuedlittlepoliticalcontactwith
the outsideworld. The pharaohs had occasionallydispatched expeditions
to the Sinai, Libya or Nubia in search ofprecious metals and stones, the
exotic such as ebony and ivory, and the mundane such as livestock and
slaves.AtthesametimeEgyptianmerchantshadkeptupalivelytradewith
Model(Paris, museeduLouvre,
the coastal town ofByblos to importolive oil and cedarwood. Since there
E3023)ofaseatedscribe,
was no apparent need for a permanentstanding army, apartfrom a royal DynastyV. Someofthehieratic
retinue, armiesofyoungmenwere periodicallyconscriptedona relatively textsused intheeducationof
adhocbasisforavarietyoflabour-intensivepurposes, from quarryingand scribesconsistedofdescriptions
ofthecomfortand prestige
trading expeditions, to military campaigns and the policing of civil
enjoyed byscribes, incontrast
disturbances. Everything was to change when Egypt was drawn into the
totherigoursand hazardsof
internationalarenaand had to defend its own gates. armylife.(EstherCarre)
That the Middle Kingdom heralded a huge
development of military organization and
hierarchy is clearly reflected in the emergence of
such specific titles as 'chief of the leaders of the
town militia', 'soldierofthe town militia', 'crewof
the ruler', 'chiefofthe leaders ofthe dog patrols'
and 'scribe of the army'. The last was a duty of
great importance. In an age where literacy levels
were extremely low - the extent of literacy has
beententativelyestimatedatlessthan 1percentof
the population - reports and orders could be
passed in writing and only be accessible to those
seniorofficialswhocouldeitherreadorhadaccess
to their own scribes. Remaining textual sources,
such as the so-called Semna Dispatches, also
indicate that the Middle Kingdom army had a
sizeable 'tail', an administrative infrastructure
manned by state bureaucrats (scribal and
managerial) who could handle all ofthe routine
choresofmilitaryhousekeepingwithcompetence.
BythetimeofSenusretIII (r. 1874-1855BC),with
the centralization of power and the creation of
fortresses with their permanent garrisons, the
army, supported by its administrative body, was a
bottomless pit of expenditure, consuming the
surplus production that had earlier fuelled the
peacefulbuildingprogramme ofthe pyramids. 5
CHRONOLOGY
ModernEgyptologists' chronologiesofancientEgyptcombinethreebasic
approaches. Firstthereare 'relative' datingmethods,suchasstratigraphic
excavation or the 'sequence dating' of artefacts. Second there are the
'absolute' chronologies, based on calendrical and astronomical records
obtainedfrom ancienttextssuchas 'king-lists' andstelai. Finallythereare
'radiometric' methods (principally radiocarbon dating and thermo
luminescence), bymeans ofwhich particulartypes ofartefactsororganic
remainscanbeassigneddatesintermsofthemeasurementofradioactive
decayoraccumulation.
The ancient Egyptians themselves dated important political and
religious eventsin terms oftheyears since the accession ofeach current
pharaoh, referred to as the regnal year. Dates were therefore recorded
inthefollowingstandardformat: 'daythreeinthesecondmonthofperet
[spring] in the thirdyear ofMenkheperra [Thutmose III]'.
Thedivisionofthepharaonicperiodintodynastieswasachronological
system introduced byManetho (fl. 300 BC), a Hellenized Egyptian priest,
when he composed his historyofEgypt, the Aegyptiaca. Unfortunately this
major work has survived only in the form ofextracts used by much later
writers, from theJewish historian T. FlaviusJosephus (b. c. AD 37) to the
ByzantinechroniclerGeorgeSyncellus (fl.AD800).Thelistof30dynasties
began with the semi-mythical Menes (fl. 3000 BC), who was the first to
unite the 'Two Lands' ofUpper Egypt (southern Nile) and Lower Egypt
(theDelta), and continuedthrough toAlexanderthe Great (d. 323Be).
Manethowasevidentlyable to consultbothEgyptiansourcesandalso
Greek annals. In general his dynasties appear to correspond to the
groupings of rulers suggested by various pharaonic king-lists, mainly
recordedonthewallsoftombsandtemples. Inmodernchronologiesthe
dynasties are usually grouped into major periods known as 'kingdoms'
(when one king ruled unchallenged throughout the Two Lands),
and 'intermediate periods' (when the kingship was often divided). The
distinction between one dynasty and another occasionally seems rather
arbitrary, but two of the most important factors appear to have been
changes in royal kinship links and the location ofthe capital.
Stonemasons'andcarpenters'
tools(Edinburgh, Royal Museum),
includingstonemould,wooden
mallet,coppertongs,axeblades,
knivesandchisels,anadzeand
anawl.Theintroductionofmore
complexweaponsevolved
simultaneouslywiththe
introductionofmorespecialized
toolsforstoneandwood
6 working.(EstherCarre)
Dynastic and historical periods
PredynasticPeriod 5500-3100BC
EarlyDynasticPeriod 3100-2686BC
OldKingdom 2686-2181 BC
FirstIntermediatePeriod 2181-2055BC
MiddleKingdom 2055-1650BC
SecondIntermediatePeriod 1650-1550BC
NewKingdom 1550-1069BC
ThirdIntermediatePeriod 1069-664BC
LatePeriod 664-332BC
PtolemaicPeriod 332-30BC
RomanPeriod 30BC-AD395
Middle Kingdom pharaohs
DynastyXI(AllEgypt) 2055-1985BC
MentuhotepII(NeBHepetra) 2055-2004BC
MentuhotepIII(Sankhkara) 2004-1992BC
MentuhotepIV(Nebtawyra) 1992-1985BC
DynastyXII 1985-1795BC
AmenemhatI(Sehetepibra) 1985-1955BC
SenusretI(Kheperkara) 1965-1920BC
AmenemhatII(Nubkaura) 1922-1878BC
SenusretII(Khakheperra) 1880-1874BC
SenusretIII(Khakaura) 1874-1855BC
AmenemhatIII(Nimaatra) 1855-1808BC
AmenemhatIV(Maakherura) 1808-1799BC
Sobekneferu(Sobekkara)- femalepharaoh 1799-1795BC
DynastyXIII 1795-after1650BC
Around70pharaohs,ofwhichthefivemorefrequentlyattestedarelistedbelow
Hor(Awibra)
Khendjer(Userkara)
SobekhotepIII(Sekhemraseewadjtawy)
NeferhotepI(Khasekhemra)
SobekhotepIV(Khaneferra) c.1725BC
DynastyXIV 1750-1650BC
SeriesofminorrulerswhowereundoubtedlycontemporarywithDynastyXIII
TherearesomeoverlapsbetweenthereignsofDynastyXIIpharaohs,whenthereappeartohavebeen
'co-regencies' during which father and son ruled simultaneously. The spelling ofancient Egyptian
personalnamesisacontinualsourceofdifficulty.Thusthepharaohscitedhereas'Senusret'maybe
foundelsewhereas'Senwosret',orintheGreekform'Sesostris'.Spellingschoseninthispublication
areasfaraspossibleconsistentwiththetransliterationoftheoriginalEgyptian.
All dates prior to the accession of the Kushite pharaoh Taharqo in
690 Be should be taken as approximate. The term 'pharaoh', which is
widelyused bymodern writers to refer to an Egyptian king, is the Greek
form ofthe ancientEgyptian phrase per-aa ('greathouse'). This termwas
originallyusedtorefertotheroyalpalaceratherthan theking, onlybeing 7
Paintedwooden model(Turin,
MuseoEgizio),c. 1850Be,
depictingthepreparationof
bread. Heremenandwomen
grindgrain, knead doughand
shapeand bakeround,flatcakes
ofbread.Soldiers'dailyrations,
asforcivilians, included large
amountsoffreshlybaked bread.
(AKG-images)
used for the king himselffrom the New Kingdom onwards. For sake of
convenience, however, the term 'pharaoh' will be used throughout.
SERVING THE PHARAOH
The Egyptian soldier spentvery little ofhis time actuallyfighting pitched
battles. Indeed, the army to which he belonged provided a ready labour
force as much as a war machine. Its military role did not preclude it
from being put to other uses when unskilled manpower was required,
and the armed expeditions sent to procure valuable commodities were
no different to the 'conventional' army according to surviving Middle
Kingdomtextualsources.Themanpowerandorganizationofthearmywas
also putto goodusefor more peacefulpurposes, suchas civilengineering
projects at home. A scene from the tomb of Djehutihotep at el-Bersha
(Tomb 2) shows the transportation ofa colossal statue pulled by 172men
in rows of fours. The accompanying inscription tells how the second
row is made up of soldiers. Likewise, an inscription of Mentuhotep IV
(r. 1992-1985 Be) records howhis armywas putto practicaland peaceful
A: RECRUITMENT
Conscriptedfromthepeasantry,youthswouldbetrainedandformed intomilitiaunitstosupplementthehereditarywarriors.
For the most part then, the Egyptian soldier was a peasant who was required to serve in the army when the pharaoh
demanded service. As such he was not afull-time professional soldierofthe realm, but a part-time memberofwhat was
known as a 'town militia' raised and maintained by the local nome. Military service began in the late teens, a peasant
conscriptserving perhapsforayearortwobeforebeingallowedtoreturn hometohisvillage. However, hewould beliable
tobecalledtoarmsatanytimeforexpeditionsorcampaigns.
Oninductionintothearmy, ayouthwould besentfrom hisvillagetothenearbybarracksfortraining. Onarrivalhewould
beregistered byascribeand would then receivean obligatoryhaircut, closelycropped hairbeingthemilitaryfashion. Drill
and instruction in the use of weapons would be an essential part of the on-going process of turning our free-thinking
individual into a useful soldier. This basic training also included an energetic fitness programme, and this scene shows
recruitstakingpartinawrestlingcompetition.Theobjectistothrowyouropponenttotheground,andthecontestcontinues
withoutintervalsuntilonemanhasthrown hisopponentanumberofagreedtimes, perhapsthree, withoutfirstsufferingthe
samefate himself.Touchingthegroundwiththeback, shouldersorhipsconstitutesafall.
8