Solar–to–Chemical Conversion: Photocatalytic and Photoelectrochemical Processes

461 Pages·2021·17.415 MB·English

by  Hongqi Sun (editor)

Solar-to-ChemicalConversion
Solar-to-Chemical Conversion
Photocatalytic and Photoelectrochemical Processes
Edited by
Hongqi Sun
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10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
v
Contents
1 Introduction:ADelicateCollectionofAdvancesin
Solar-to-ChemicalConversions 1
HongqiSun
2 ArtificialPhotosynthesisandSolarFuels 7
JunKe
2.1 IntroductionofSolarFuels 7
2.2 Photosynthesis 8
2.2.1 NaturalPhotosynthesis 8
2.2.2 ArtificialPhotosynthesis 9
2.3 PrinciplesofPhotocatalysis 10
2.4 ProductsofArtificialPhotosynthesis 13
2.4.1 Hydrocarbons 13
2.4.1.1 Methane(CH ) 14
4
2.4.1.2 Methanol(CH OH) 18
3
2.4.1.3 Formaldehyde(HCHO) 20
2.4.1.4 FormicAcid(HCOOH) 22
2.4.1.5 C2Hydrocarbons 25
2.4.1.6 OtherHydrocarbons 26
2.4.2 CarbonMonoxide(CO) 27
2.4.3 Dioxygen(O ) 31
2
2.5 Perspective 34
Acknowledgments 36
References 36
3 NaturalandArtificialPhotosynthesis 41
DimitriosA.Pantazis
3.1 Introduction 41
3.2 OverviewofNaturalPhotosynthesis 43
3.3 LightHarvestingandExcitationEnergyTransfer 44
3.4 ChargeSeparationandElectronTransfer 48
3.5 WaterOxidation 53
vi Contents
3.6 CarbonFixation 61
3.7 Conclusions 63
References 63
4 PhotocatalyticHydrogenEvolution 77
AmanjKheradmand,YuxiangZhu,ShengshenGuandYijiaoJiang
4.1 Introduction 77
4.2 FundamentalsofPhotocatalyticH Evolution 79
2
4.3 PhotocatalyticH EvolutionUnderUVLight 82
2
4.3.1 TitaniumDioxide(TiO )-BasedSemiconductors 82
2
4.3.2 OtherTypesofUV-ResponsivePhotocatalysts 87
4.4 PhotocatalyticH EvolutionUnderVisibleLight 88
2
4.4.1 CarbonNitride(C N )-BasedSemiconductor 88
3 4
4.4.2 OtherTypesofVisible-Light-ResponsivePhotocatalysts 94
4.5 PhotocatalyticH EvolutionUnderNear-InfraredLight 95
2
4.6 RolesofSacrificialReagentsandReactionPathways 99
4.7 SummaryandOutlook 102
References 103
5 PhotoelectrochemicalHydrogenEvolution 107
ZhiliangWangandLianzhouWang
5.1 BackgroundofPhotoelectrocatalyticWaterSplitting 107
5.2 MechanismofChargeSeparationandTransfer 109
5.3 StrategyforImprovingChargeTransfer 112
5.3.1 ImprovingtheChargeTransferinContinuousFilm 113
5.3.2 ImprovingtheChargeTransferinParticulatePhotoelectrodes 114
5.4 StrategyforImprovingElectron–HoleSeparation 116
5.4.1 HeterojunctionFormation 116
5.4.2 CrystalFacetControl 117
5.4.3 SurfacePassivation 118
5.5 SurfaceCocatalystDesign 120
5.6 UnbiasedPECWaterSplitting 122
5.7 ConclusionandPerspective 123
References 124
6 PhotocatalyticOxygenEvolution 129
HuayangZhang,WenjieTianandShaobinWang
6.1 Introduction 129
6.1.1 ConfigurationofPhotocatalyticWaterOxidation 129
6.1.2 Mechanism,Thermodynamics,andKineticsTowardEfficient
OxygenEvolution 130
6.2 HomogeneousPhotocatalyticWaterOxidation 131
6.2.1 MolecularComplexesandPolyoxometalates 131
6.2.2 MechanismDetailsandtheStability 135
6.3 HeterogeneousPhotocatalyticWaterOxidation 137
Contents vii
6.3.1 UniquePropertiesofNanosizedSemiconductorSystem 138
6.3.1.1 QuantumConfinement 138
6.3.1.2 LocalizedSurfacePlasmonResonance(LSPR) 141
6.3.1.3 SurfaceAreaandExposedFacet-EnhancedChargeTransfer 142
6.3.2 Zero-DimensionalSemiconductorMaterialsforPhotocatalytic
WaterOxidation 143
6.3.2.1 0DMetalComplexesandNanoclusters 143
6.3.2.2 MetalOxideQuantumDotsandNanocrystals 144
6.3.3 One-DimensionalSemiconductorMaterialsforPhotocatalytic
WaterOxidation 147
6.3.4 Two-DimensionalSemiconductorMaterialsforPhotocatalytic
WaterOxidation 149
6.3.4.1 2DMetalOxideNanosheetsforPhotocatalyticWaterOxidation 149
6.3.4.2 LayeredDoubleHydroxide(LDH)NanosheetsforPhotocatalytic
WaterOxidation 150
6.3.4.3 Metal-BasedOxyhalideSemiconductorsforPhotocatalyticWater
Oxidation 152
6.3.5 LDSemiconductor-BasedHybridsforPhotocatalyticOxygen
Evolution 153
6.3.5.1 1D-Based(0D/1Dand1D/1D)SemiconductorHybridsforEnhanced
PhotocatalyticWaterOxidation 154
6.3.5.2 2D-Based(2D/2D)SemiconductorHybridsforEnhancedPhotocatalytic
WaterOxidation 155
6.3.5.3 Metal-Free-BasedSemiconductorsforWaterOxidation 156
6.4 CatalyticActiveSite–CatalysisCorrelationinLDSemiconductors 156
6.5 ConclusionsandPerspectives 157
References 158
7 PhotoelectrochemicalOxygenEvolution 163
FumiakiAmano
7.1 Introduction 163
7.2 Honda–FujishimaEffect 164
7.3 FactorsAffectingthePhotoanodicCurrent 165
7.4 ElectrodePotentialsatDifferentpH 168
7.5 EvaluationofPECPerformance 170
7.6 FlatBandPotentialandPhotocurrentOnsetPotential 172
7.7 SelectionofMaterials 173
7.8 EnhancementofPECProperties 175
7.8.1 NanostructuringandMorphologyControl 176
7.8.2 DonorDoping 178
7.8.3 ModificationofPhotoanodeSurface 180
7.8.4 Electron-ConductiveMaterials 181
7.9 PECDeviceforWaterSplitting 182
7.10 ConclusionsandOutlook 184
References 185
viii Contents
8 PhotocatalyticandPhotoelectrochemicalOverallWater
Splitting 189
NurAqliliRianaCheMohamad,FilipeMarquesMotaandDongHaKim
8.1 Introduction 189
8.2 PhotocatalyticOverallWaterSplitting 190
8.2.1 PrinciplesandMechanism 191
8.2.2 KeyPerformanceIndicators 193
8.2.3 MaterialsforOne-StepPhotoexcitationTowardOverallWater
Splitting 194
8.2.3.1 Semiconductors 194
8.2.3.2 IncorporationofCocatalysts 204
8.2.3.3 PlasmonicNanostructures 206
8.2.4 HybridSystemsforTwo-StepPhotoexcitationTowardOverall
WaterSplitting 207
8.2.4.1 Z-Schemes 208
8.3 PhotoelectrochemicalOverallWaterSplitting 213
8.3.1 PrinciplesandMechanism 215
8.3.2 KeyPerformanceIndicators 215
8.3.3 MaterialsDesign 216
8.3.3.1 PhotoanodeMaterials 216
8.3.3.2 PhotocathodeMaterials 219
8.3.4 UnassistedPhotoelectrochemicalOverallWaterSplitting 221
8.3.4.1 Photoanode–PhotocathodeTandemCells 221
8.3.4.2 Photovoltaic–PhotoelectrodeDevices 225
8.4 ConcludingRemarksandOutlook 230
Acknowledgments 231
References 231
9 PhotocatalyticCO Reduction 243
2
MaochangLiu,GuijunChen,BoyaMin,JinwenShi,YubinChenand
QibinLiu
9.1 Introduction 243
9.2 PrincipleofPhotocatalyticReductionofCO 245
2
9.3 EnergyandMassTransfersinPhotocatalyticReductionofCO 247
2
9.3.1 EnergyFlowfromtheConcentratortoReactor 249
9.3.2 EnergyFlowontheSurfaceofthePhotocatalyst 252
9.3.3 MassFlowinCO PhotocatalyticReduction 259
2
9.3.4 ProductSelectivityinCO PhotocatalyticReaction 262
2
9.4 Conclusions 265
Acknowledgments 266
References 266
10 PhotoelectrochemicalCO Reduction 269
2
ZhongxueYang,HuiNing,QingshanZhao,HongqiSunandMingboWu
10.1 Introduction 269
10.1.1 IntroductionofPhotoelectrocatalyticReductionofCO 269
2
Contents ix
10.1.2 PrinciplesofPhotoelectrocatalyticReductionofCO 270
2
10.1.3 SystemConfigurationsofPhotoelectrocatalyticReduction
ofCO 270
2
10.2 PECCO ReductionPrinciples 272
2
10.2.1 ThermodynamicsandKineticsofCO Reduction 272
2
10.2.2 ReactionConditions 273
10.2.2.1 ReactionTemperatureandPressure 273
10.2.2.2 pHValue 274
10.2.2.3 Solvent 274
10.2.2.4 ExternalElectricalBias 274
10.2.3 PerformanceEvaluationofPECCO Reduction 275
2
10.2.3.1 ProductEvolutionRateandCatalyticCurrentDensity 275
10.2.3.2 TurnoverNumberandTurnoverFrequency 275
10.2.3.3 Overpotential 275
10.2.3.4 FaradaicEfficiency 276
10.3 ApplicationofSolar-to-ChemicalEnergyConversioninPECCO
2
Reduction 276
10.3.1 PECCO ReductiononSemiconductors 276
2
10.3.1.1 OxideSemiconductors 277
10.3.1.2 Non-oxideSemiconductors 280
10.3.1.3 ChalcogenideSemiconductors 281
10.3.2 PECCO ReductiononCocatalystSystems 282
2
10.3.2.1 MetalNanoparticles 283
10.3.2.2 MetalComplexes 284
10.3.3 PECCO ReductiononHybridSemiconductors 285
2
10.3.3.1 ConductivePolymers 286
10.3.3.2 EnzymaticBiocatalysts 287
10.3.3.3 OrganicMolecules 287
10.4 OtherConfigurationsforPECCO Reduction 289
2
10.5 ConclusionandOutlook 292
Acknowledgments 295
ConflictofInterest 295
References 295
11 PhotocatalyticandPhotoelectrochemicalNitrogen
Fixation 301
LeiShiandHongqiSun
11.1 Introduction 301
11.2 FundamentalPrinciplesandPresentChallenges 303
11.2.1 PrinciplesinN ReductionforNH Production 303
2 3
11.2.2 ChallengesforN ReductiontoNH 305
2 3
11.3 StrategiesforCatalystDesignandFabrication 307
11.3.1 DefectEngineering 307
11.3.1.1 Vacancies 307
11.3.1.2 HeteroatomDoping 313
x Contents
11.3.1.3 Amorphization 314
11.3.2 StructureEngineering 317
11.3.2.1 MorphologyRegulation 317
11.3.2.2 FacetControl 321
11.3.3 InterfaceEngineering 322
11.3.4 HeterojunctionEngineering 324
11.3.5 Co-catalystEngineering 327
11.3.6 BiomimeticEngineering 330
11.4 ConclusionsandOutlook 333
References 334
12 PhotocatalyticProductionofHydrogenPeroxideUsing
MOFMaterials 339
XiaolangChen,YasutakaKuwahara,KohsukeMoriandHiromiYamashita
12.1 Introduction 339
12.2 PhotocatalyticH O ProductionThroughSelectiveTwo-Electron
2 2
ReductionofO UtilizingNiO/MIL-125-NH 340
2 2
12.3 Two-PhaseSystemUtilizingLinker-AlkylatedHydrophobic
MIL-125-NH forPhotocatalyticH O Production 346
2 2 2
12.4 TiCluster-AlkylatedHydrophobicMIL-125-NH forPhotocatalytic
2
H O ProductioninTwo-PhaseSystem 356
2 2
12.5 ConclusionandOutlooks 362
Reference 362
13 PhotocatalyticandPhotoelectrochemicalReformingof
Methane 365
JinqiangZhangandHongqiSun
13.1 Introduction 365
13.2 Photo-MediatedProcesses 367
13.3 DifferencesBetweenPhoto-AssistedCatalysisand
Thermocatalysis 369
13.3.1 CatalystInvolved 369
13.3.2 Reactors 370
13.3.3 Mechanism 371
13.3.4 EquationsforQuantumEfficiency 373
13.4 ReactionsofMethaneConversionviaPhoto-AssistedCatalysis 373
13.4.1 MethaneDryReforming 374
13.4.2 MethaneSteamReforming 376
13.4.3 MethaneCoupling 379
13.4.4 MethaneOxidation 381
13.4.5 MethaneDehydroaromatization 382
13.5 ConclusionsandPerspectives 383
Acknowledgment 384
References 384