Solar technologies for the 21st century

725 Pages·2013·44.805 MB·English

by  Blazev, Anco S

Solar Technologies for the
21st Century

Solar Technologies for the
21st Century
by Anco S. Blazev
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Blazev, Anco S., 1946-
Solar technologies for the 21st century / by Anco S. Blazev.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-88173-697-X (alk. paper) -- ISBN 0-88173-698-8 (electronic) -- ISBN 978-1-4665-8291-0
(Taylor & Francis distribution : alk. paper) 1. Solar energy. 2. Solar energy industries. I. Title. II.
Title: Solar technologies for the twenty-first century.
TJ810.B55 2013
621.47--dc23
2012048663

Solar Technologies for the 21st Century by Anco S. Blazev
©2013 by The Fairmont Press. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or
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or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
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While every effort is made to provide dependable information, the publisher, authors, and editors
cannot be held responsible for any errors or omissions.
Contents
Chapter 1. Solar Energy. .................................................1 Successful solar companies ...............................271
Solar power generation basics ..............................1 Successful solar projects ....................................276
Sunlight basics and key concepts ........................2 Other energy projects .........................................280
Solar energy availability and use .........................7 Successful initiatives ...........................................281
Solar cells and modules .......................................13 Failed renewable energy companies,
2007-2012 .......................................................285
Chapter 2. Today’s Solar Technologies .......................19 Failed renewable energy projects,
Solar thermal and thermoelectric power ..........20 2007-2012 .......................................................302
Today’s PV technologies ......................................28 Failed thin film solar companies ......................310
Silicon based solar materials, Performance characteristics ...............................333
cells and modules ..........................................30 Safety issues .........................................................335
Polysilicon ..............................................................30 Field operation issues ........................................336
Solar cells ...............................................................32 Field test results ..................................................338
c-Si PV modules ....................................................45 Case study ............................................................344
Thin film technologies .........................................58 Updates .................................................................349
The major thin film technologies .......................61
Concentrating PV technology .............................70 Chapter 6. Solar Power Fields ..................................351
Hybrid technologies .............................................73 Solar thermal technologies ................................352
New and developing solar technologies...........81 PV technologies ...................................................354
PV modules certification ....................................362
Chapter 3. Most Promising Solar Technologies ........85 Lab tests of PV modules ...................................365
Solar thermal technologies ..................................86 c-Si modules detailed failure analysis .............374
Photovoltaic technologies ....................................88 CPV and HCPV technologies ...........................395
Silicon PV technologies ........................................91 Test results ...........................................................398
Thin film PV technologies ..................................110 Inverters ................................................................404
Promising technologies ......................................130 Equipment and process standardization .........417
CPV and HCPV technologies ...........................139 PV installations, setup and performance ........421
Achievements of PV technologies ....................141 Large-scale solar power fields ..........................426
Most promising materials ..................................142 The planning phase ............................................447
Hydrogen generation .........................................144 The design phase ................................................450
Energy Storage ....................................................155 The installation phase ........................................458
Operation and maintenance phase ..................461
Chapter 4. Exotic Solar Technologies ......................161 Operational considerations, tasks & issues ....462
CPV technologies ................................................167 Power field performance ...................................465
Excitonic PV technology ....................................174 Solar power fields in the 21st century ............470
Hybrid solar cells ................................................187
Nano-PV technology ..........................................187 Chapter 7. Solar’s Importance,
Quantum particles PV technology ...................201 Finance, and Regulations ............................475
Plasmonic PV technology ..................................209 Financial considerations .....................................475
Organic technology .............................................214 Economic evaluation of renewable
Hybrid solar technologies .................................235 energy technologies .....................................476
New PV materials ...............................................241 Practical examples...............................................482
New PV technologies .........................................252 Operational risks .................................................488
Performance insurance .......................................490
Chapter 5. Solar Successes and Failures ..................269 Long-term field tests ..........................................499
The U.S. solar energy (r)evolution ...................269 Solar industry standardization .........................501
Great business successes ....................................270 External impact and cost ...................................509
v
Lifetime energy balance .....................................510 in the 21st century .......................................588
Investment and finance ....................................512 The 21st century direction .................................607
The U.S. investment and finance .....................516 Conclusions ..........................................................628
World investment and finance ..........................519
Political considerations ......................................522 Chapter 9. Energy Generation and the
Regulatory procedures .......................................524 Environment in the 21st Century ....................635
Environmental conditions ..................................635
Chapter 8. The Solar Markets A brief overview of U.S. environmental
in the 21st century .....................................529 legislation ......................................................639
Renewable energy in the U.S. ..........................529 Present-day environmental status report ........641
the U.S. solar market, 2010-2011 ......................531 Energy generation and the environment ........649
The state (solar country) of California ............532 Conventional energy generators.......................650
The U.S. PV industry .........................................540 Renewable, green and safe? ..............................657
U.S. PV markets ..................................................541 Environmental impact of solar installations ..663
Addressing trade issues .....................................541 Environmental challenges ..................................676
Political evolution ...............................................542 Problems ...............................................................681
LCOE or not LCOE?...........................................543 Solution(s) ............................................................681
The world .............................................................544
Technologies of the 21st century ......................571 Glossary .........................................................................687
PV manufacturers’ future ..................................580 Abbreviations ................................................................703
Niche and specialty energy markets Index ...............................................................................709
vi
Preface
Different methods of converting the sun’s energy • Quick money-making schemes give the industry
into electricity have been used since the dark ages a bad name.
(no pun intended). The applications have been slowly
• Solar installations in cloudy areas have marginal
evolving from simple sun drying of fish and fruits
success at best.
to using optics to light fires—all the way to today’s
• Large-scale desert solar installations are the way
wide-spread residential and commercial applications
to energy independence.
of photovoltaics and solar thermal technologies. And
this is just the beginning. • Efficient energy storage is needed to make solar
The overall potential of solar power generation is power compatible.
astounding. The entire global electricity demand could
• All solar technologies are created equal, but do
be provided from just 3% of the world’s deserts, while
not perform equally.
several hundred square miles in the Nevada desert
• Using cheap materials and labor does not lead to
could power all of the US’s lower 48 states.
long-term success.
It sounds good and doable, but there are still
gaps in solar technologies, energy markets, and global
The overwhelming conclusion from the last boom-
finances, so these must be solved first, and before we
bust cycle is that a lot of team effort, time and money
can expect serious solar energy generation in the US
are (still) needed to bring the solar energy to its right-
and abroad.
ful place as an efficient, reliable and profitable energy
These gaps caused the latest solar boom and bust
source.
cycle (2007-2011) which is now in its last stages. It gave
Most people in key technical and administrative
us a number of examples of how to and how not to do
decision making positions were not even born during
things.
the last energy boom-bust cycles, so the lessons of
Some of the examples from the last solar boom-
these are lost on them. Because of that, we’ve all had
bust cycle, worth remembering are:
to re-live the past and learn those lessons for ourselves.
Let’s hope that we have learned—and remember—the
• Government subsidies work, but are not a long-
lessons this time.
term solution.
Most importantly, we must roll up our sleeves and
• Political maneuvers, in most cases, cause more
quickly make the necessary changes needed to ensure
harm than good.
full development and implementation of renewable
• Large companies and projects can fail too; the energies in our daily lives during the 21st century. It
larger they are, harder they fall. can be done. It should be done!
vii

Acknowledgments
This book contains a number of complex subjects in many areas of the solar
energy field, which require complete understanding of the different principals and
subjects at hand. Since neither the author, nor anyone else, can claim absolute ex-
pertise in all subject areas, we do appreciate the full and friendly cooperation of our
capable co-authors, helpers, assistants and editors.
We would like to thank also all the good people and well-meaning solar pro-
fessionals and enthusiasts, who gave us permission to use part of their materials in
this book. Without these, the book would not have been possible—at least not in its
present form.
Even after all this effort, the book is only a glance at the quickly developing
solar energy industry. The fast growing body of information—technological, financial,
political, regulatory and socio-economic—is constantly changing.
Our thanks go to our many supporters and collaborators for their contributions,
hands-on assistance, support and encouragement during the planning, information
gathering, sorting, writing and editing processes.
We hope our collaborators and assistants will continue working with us on
completing the tasks at hand as outlined herein. The key issues and problems must
be put on the table for open, sincere and professional discussion and debate—with
you, the reader, as judge and jury.
This is vitally important and absolutely needed to further the goals of the fledg-
ling solar industry, and ensure its progress now and throughout the 21st century.
A. Blazev, 2012
ix