Solar PV power design, manufacturing and applications from sand to systems PDF
Preview Solar PV power design, manufacturing and applications from sand to systems
Solar PV Power Solar PV Power Design, Manufacturing and Applications from Sand to Systems Rabindra Satpathy Venkateswarlu Pamuru AcademicPressisanimprintofElsevier 125LondonWall,LondonEC2Y5AS,UnitedKingdom 525BStreet,Suite1650,SanDiego,CA92101,UnitedStates 50HampshireStreet,5thFloor,Cambridge,MA02139,UnitedStates TheBoulevard,LangfordLane,Kidlington,OxfordOX51GB,UnitedKingdom ©2021ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved. Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproducedortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronicor mechanical,includingphotocopying,recording,oranyinformationstorageandretrievalsystem,without permissioninwritingfromthepublisher.Detailsonhowtoseekpermission,furtherinformationaboutthe Publisher’spermissionspoliciesandourarrangementswithorganizationssuchastheCopyrightClearance CenterandtheCopyrightLicensingAgency,canbefoundatourwebsite:www.elsevier.com/permissions. ThisbookandtheindividualcontributionscontainedinitareprotectedundercopyrightbythePublisher (otherthanasmaybenotedherein). Notices Knowledgeandbestpracticeinthisfieldareconstantlychanging.Asnewresearchandexperiencebroadenourunderstanding, changesinresearchmethods,professionalpractices,ormedicaltreatmentmaybecomenecessary. Practitionersandresearchersmustalwaysrelyontheirownexperienceandknowledgeinevaluatingandusinganyinformation, methods,compounds,orexperimentsdescribedherein.Inusingsuchinformationormethodstheyshouldbemindfuloftheir ownsafetyandthesafetyofothers,includingpartiesforwhomtheyhaveaprofessionalresponsibility. Tothefullestextentofthelaw,neitherthePublishernortheauthors,contributors,oreditors,assumeanyliabilityforanyinjury and/ordamagetopersonsorpropertyasamatterofproductsliability,negligenceorotherwise,orfromanyuseoroperationof anymethods,products,instructions,orideascontainedinthematerialherein. LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData AcatalogrecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheLibraryofCongress BritishLibraryCataloguing-in-PublicationData AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary ISBN978-0-12-817626-9 ForinformationonallAcademicPresspublications visitourwebsiteathttps://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals Publisher:BrianRomer AcquisitionsEditor:LisaReading EditorialProjectManager:AleksandraPackowska ProductionProjectManager:PrasannaKalyanaraman CoverDesigner:ChristianJ.Bilbow TypesetbySPiGlobal,India Dedication Dedicated to my beloved mother, the late Smt. Charubala Satpathy, who inspired me to be a solar engineer from my college days. Rabindra Satpathy Dedicated to my beloved mother, the late Smt. Pamuru Subamma. Dr. Venkateswarlu Pamuru About the authors Rabindra Satpathy HeisanelectricalengineeringgraduatefromNIT,Warangal.Hehasmorethan 30yearsofprofessionalexperienceintheareaofrenewableenergy,thatis,in thefieldsofsolarphotovoltaic(PV)powersystems,windpowergeneration, andothers.Hestartedhissolarcareerin1984attheOdishaRenewableEnergy Development Agency,installing India’sfirst25KwpsolarPV dieselhybrid system, aPVwindhybridsystem,anda 1.1MWwindfarm.Heservedasa key member of the management team at Tata BP Solar, Bangalore, from 1990 to 2002. He was instrumental in setting up India’s first 5MW project inRajasthananda1MWrooftopprojectfortheThyagarajSportsComplex, New Delhi, as president of Reliance Industries Limited-Solar Group from 2007to2013.Hewasinvolvedinestablishingasolarmoduleandcellfactory aswellasplanningforalargemanufacturingfacilityforpolysilicontosystems. Affiliations and expertise BoardMemberofInternationalSolarEnergySocietyinFreiburg,Germany. Venkateswarlu Pamuru He holds a Ph.D. in material science from the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore.HeworkedintheIndianSpaceResearchOrganisationfor23years asascientistinthesolarpanelsdivision.Hewasinvolvedinthedevelopment ofspacesolarpaneltechnologywithSi,GaAs,andmultijunctionsolarcells. He worked as a project manager for the solar array for the INSAT-2C and INSAT-2D satellites and was involved in the design, manufacturing, and testingofsolarpanelsforsatellites.Hewasinvolvedintheestablishmentof Sisolarcellandmodulemanufacturinglines.Healsodevelopedthefabrication process and produced modules at Moserbaer Photovoltaics and Reliance Industries.Heiscurrentlyinvolvedinthedesignandengineeringofrooftop and ground-mounted solar PV power systems as well as monitoring the operationalandmaintenanceaspectsofsolarPVplants. Affiliations and expertise WorkedasGeneralManager,Engineering,QuantaPowerSolutionsIndiaPvt.ltd.PresentlyassociatedwithGrand SolarPvt.Ltd.,Chennai,India. xvii Foreword When my good colleague Rabindra Satpathy and his coauthor Venkateswartu Pamuru asked me to writeaforewordforthisimportantvolume,Iacceptedimmediately.Duringmy10yearsaspresident oftheInternationalSolarEnergySociety(ISES)from2010to2019,IworkedcloselywithRabindraon theexecutivecommitteetoformulateISESprograms,withparticularemphasisonPV-relatedactivities in India and around the world. ISES is the oldest continuously operating solar energy society in the world,withitsrootsdatingallthewaybackto1954withtheformationoftheAssociationforApplied Solar Energy in Arizona. Perhaps not so coincidentally, this was the same year that Bell Telephone Laboratories patented the first commercial solar cell. The Society, which became officially known as ISES in1970,has advocated for governments, universities, and private industry toinvest insolar energyresearch,development,anddeployment,andtoreportonthisworkthroughscientificconfer- encesandtechnicalpublications.Theseactivities,andinparticulartheISESSolarEnergyJournaland theISESSolarWorldCongressesandmorerecentlytheISESwebinarseries,havecertainlyhadasig- nificantinfluenceontheremarkablegrowthofthesolarindustryfromwattstogigawattsduringthepast half century. According to recent reports,a the worldwide installed capacity of PV power systems is now estimated at 650 GW (as of mid-2020) and will likely exceed 1 TW in just a few short years,b meetingas much as10%ofthe world’s electricity needs. SolarPVPowerservesasatextbook-leveldescriptionoftheentiresolarsupplychain,startingin theearlychapterswithdetaileddiscussionsofthebasicingredientsandthemanufacturingprocessesof silicon-basedPVsystems,andconcludingwithchaptersthatdiscussthemultitudeofapplicationsof PVsystemsbeingusedtoday.Specifically,Chapter1setsthestagewithacomprehensivedescription ofthefoundationofsilicon-basedPVsystems,quartz:whythisingredientisrequiredforpolysilicon production,anditscurrentpriceandavailability.Thechapterthencontinueswiththebasicmanufactur- ingprocessesforpolysilicon,coveringtopicssuchaspolysiliconspecificationsandtheprocessofcon- vertingquartztosolar-gradesilicon.ThechaptersignificantlyhighlightstheSiemensmanufacturing processandtheequipmentusedinthisprocess,butalsoexaminesalternativemanufacturingprocesses such asfluidized bed reactors. Chapter2thendelvesintotheprocessofgrowingsiliconcrystalstomakeingots,whicharefun- damental to producing silicon crystalline solar cells. The chapter summarizes processes for making ingotsandingotcasts,anddescribesequipmentrequiredforingotmanufacturing.Topicssuchasqual- itytestingandreliabilityarealsodiscussed.Thechapterconcludeswithadiscussiononmanufacturers andthemanufacturingcapacityofingotsgloballyaswellastechnologytrendsandananalysisofthe pricing ofingots. Theconventionalprocessesaswellasnewapproachesforsiliconwafermanufacturingarethefocus of Chapter 3. The discussion of conventional processes includes first establishing specifications forwafers,theprocessformakingwaferssuchasingotslicingusingwireanddiamondsaws,quality testing and reliability, and the equipment required for wafer manufacturing. Current silicon wafer manufacturers as well as technology trends and pricing analysis of wafers are also included in this aREN21GlobalStatusReport,2019. bSolarPowerEuropeGlobalMarketOutlook,2019–2023. xix xx Foreword discussionofconventionalmanufacturingapproaches.Chapter3thenbringsupvarioustopicscovering newmanufacturinginnovations,suchasthe1366processandtheKerflosswaferprocessbyepitaxy. Thechapterfurtherexploresnewtrendsinthesenewprocesses,includingtheiradvantagesanddisad- vantages, andcost reduction opportunities indirect wafer manufacturing. Fromsiliconwafermanufacturing,Chapter4goesintogreatdetailtopresenttheall-importanttopic ofmanufacturingcrystallinesiliconsolarcells.Followingabasicdescriptionofthephysicsofsolarcells, thereisanextensivediscussionofprocessesintheirmanufactureandthemanyaspectsrelatedtomain- taininghighqualitycontrolduringthemanufacturingprocess.First,thewafersmustbechecked,andsaw damageremoved.Topicssuchasetchinganddoping,includingtheequipmentusedintheseprocesses, aregivensubstantialdiscussion.Then,processessuchasetchingofphosphorsilicateglass,antireflection coatingdeposition,contactmaking(e.g.,screenprinting,photolithographyandevaporation,andelec- troplating),andthetestingandsortingofsolarcellsarecovered.Thesubsectionofcellmanufacturingis cappedoffwithadescriptionofsunsimulatorrequirementsandsuppliers.Chapter4thenprovidesmore comprehensivedescriptions,includingmanufacturingprocesses,ofP-typevs.N-typesolarcells,the PERC/PERLcells,bifacialcells,andadvancedhighefficiencycells.Aswithpreviousandsubsequent chapters, Chapter 4 closes with descriptions of equipment used in solar cell manufacturing, a list of siliconsolarcellmanufacturers,andtechnologytrendsandpricinganalysisofsolarcells. Chapter5thencoversthemanufacturingofcrystallinesiliconsolarPVmodels.Afterprovidinga descriptionofthespecificationsofsolarmodules,thechapterdigsintothemanydetailedaspectsin- volvedinthemanufacturingprocess,suchasthesuperstrateandsubstrate,encapsulant,solarribbons, thejunctionboxandframe,adhesives,solarcelltabbingandstringing,solarcircuitlayout,electrical testing,etc.ProcessesinvolvingspecialtypesofPVmodules,suchasbifacialandglass-to-glass,arealso covered.Thechapterthengoesintoreliabilityandtestingprocedures,offersalistofmanufacturersof siliconPVmodules,andprovidesinformationontechnologytrendsandpricinganalysisofsolarPV modules. The remaining chapters of the book deal with the extensive types of end-use power applications offeredbysolarPVsystems.Chapter6introducesasummaryofthemanytraditionalsolarpowerap- plications,suchashybridpowersystems,solarhomesystems,streetlighting,waterpumping,andbat- tery charging. The chapter also presents new, innovative applications that offer possibilities of significantexpansionofsolarsystemutilization,suchasfloatingsolarPV,electricvehiclecharging, and even solar-powered wheelchairsand drones. Thenextchaptersgointofurtherdetailonspecificcategoriesofapplications.Chapter7,forexam- ple,coverstheveryimportanttopicofoff-gridsolarPVsystems,includingsystemcomponents,system design,costing,andsomeexamples.Thechapterincludesinformationaboutsystemreliabilityandlife cyclecostanalysisaswellastypicalexamplesofsystemperformanceusinganalysisandcalculations. Approximately 1 billion people around the world, and especially in Africa and south and southeast Asia,arestillwithoutadequateaccesstoreliableelectricityservices,sothischapteriskeytodescribing how solarPVcan make electrical energy accessible toeveryone. Anotherkeyapplicationisrooftopsolar(wherethesolarPVsystemisintegratedintothelocalelec- tricaldistributionsystem)andbuilding-integratedPV(BIPV).Chapter8providesadescriptionofroof- top solar and BIPV, including the components involved, the design of these systems, and costing information.Fieldapplicationsandexamplesofrooftopsolarsystemsarepresented,alongwithexam- plesofsystemperformanceanalysisbasedoncalculations.Keyinformationaboutthereliabilityand life cyclecost analysisof rooftop andBIPVsystemsis also provided. Foreword xxi Despite the ongoing importance of distributed solar applications such as described in Chapters 7 and 8, there is a growing trend to develop solar farms, serving as central power stations connected tonationalorregionalgrids.Thishasbecomethelowest-costsolutionforprovidingbulksolarpower to the grid, and recently has become the lowest-cost solution for adding power to the grid from any source in many cases. Chapter 9 addresses this topic in detail by providing an overall description of grid-connected solar PV systems, and the components required to make the connection, such as inverters, DC and AC cables, array junction boxes or DC string combiner boxes, module mounting structures,andothercivilworks.Chapter9alsoprovidesinformationonACsystemsandprotections andpropergrounding.Designaspects,includingsimulationtools,costingaspects,andlifecyclecost analyses, are also covered. Finally, in Chapter 10 an overall discussion of grid integration and the performance of solar PV power systems is presented. This chapter covers topics such as requirements for AC systems, trans- formers, switchgears, substations, and transmission lines as well as protection requirements. The chapter presents methodologies and calculation schemes for performance analysis and presents key informationon system reliability aswell as operation and maintenancerequirements. Overthepasthalfcentury,solarPVhasevolvedfromacuriouslaboratoryexperimentwithlimited commercialusetoanelegantandlow-costtechnologythatprovides,especiallywithstoragesystems, reliableelectricityservicesalmostanywhereandatalmostanyscale,fromremoteandoff-gridappli- cationstobulkenergysupplyintonationalgrids.Withourelectricitydemandsincreasingrelativetoall otherenergydemands,andwithagrowingclimatecrisisthatplacesurgencyondecarbonizingouren- ergy supply, solar PV power system applications of all forms are destined to grow substantially and rapidly.TheInternationalRenewableEnergyAgency’sRE-MAPanalysiscshowsthatpossiblymore than8.4TWofPVcapacitywillbeinstalledworldwidebythemiddleofthiscentury,roughly12times thecurrentinstalledcapacity.Akeytothisgrowth,however,istoeducateandtrainaworkforcethat cancontinuouslysupportthistechnology,andtoinformpolicymakersandenergydecisionmakersof the low cost and reliability of solar PV technologies. Solar PV Power serves as a very important contribution to supporting the growth of solar PV. I commend the coauthors Rabindra Satpathy and Venkateshwarlu Pamuru for this remarkable work and encourage all readers to make frequent use of thisbook as they develop their own solar powerprograms. David Renn(cid:1)e FormerScientistofNRELandImmediatePastPresidentoftheInternationalSolarEnergySociety cIRENA Global Energy Transformation, 2019 Edition: https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/ 2019/Apr/IRENA_Global_Energy_Transformation_2019.pdf. Acknowledgments Theauthorsarethankfultoallthepeopleassociatedwiththisbook,fromitsconceptualizationthrough its completion. Our gratitude goes to Padmabibhushan—Dr. R.L. Mashelkar, former Director General of the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research and a member of the board of directors of Reliance IndustriesLtd.,whosupportedusinwritingthisbook,whichcouldserveasaguidetoallsolarenthu- siasts,engineers, scientists, young entrepreneurs, andthe overall solar communityat large. Rabindra Satpathy would like to express thanks to his wife, Mamta Satpathy, and his daughter, Dr.ArushiSatpathy,fortheirunwaveringencouragementandmoraleboostsduringtheentirejourney of thisbook. Satpathywouldalsoliketoconveyspecialthanksandgratitudetohisbrother-in-law,Manoranjan Mohapatra(Mao),whoprovidedthecourageandstimulationneededforthecompletionofthisbook. His supportwas ofparamount importancewhile working on this bookin Bangalore inearly 2020. Dr.VenkateswarluPamuruwouldliketoextendthankstohissons,P.VenugopalandP.Ravikanth, forlendingtheirexpertiseindrawingsforvariouschaptersaswellastheirconstantmotivationduring the book writing journey. He would also like to thank his wife, P. Vijayalakshmi, for continuous support. ThecompletionofthisbookcouldnothavebeenaccomplishedwithoutthesupportofDr.Gopal Krishnan,whoprovidedexcellenttechnicalsupportonthepolysiliconprocess,fromhisvastexperi- ence in the only company that makes polysilicon in India, Mettur Chemicals. Thanks also go to Prof.S.Venugopalanforhisinsightfulinputforthe“Batteries,EnergyStorage,andElectricVehicle Charging”.Andlastly,MadanKumar.G,fordraftingandcreatingalltheAutoCADdrawingsandother images used inthisbook. Finally, the authors would also like tothank alltheir colleaguesand friends who have been with them in this endeavor and for their unforgettable help and assistance in the successful writing of the variouschapters ofthis book. xxiii CHAPTER 1 Manufacturing of polysilicon 1.1 Introduction ThereisanincreasingdemandforsolarPVinstallationintheworld.In2019, 97.1GWpofsolarPV capacityhasbeeninstalledglobally[1].AsperGTMresearch,within5years,theinstalledPVcapacity willreach1terawatt [2].SiliconhasbeentheworkhorsematerialsincetheinceptionofthesolarPV p industryand90%ofPVinstallationsweredonewithSisolarcell-basedmodules.Tomeetthisdemand, very large quantities of polysilicon feedstock material are required to manufacture Si solar cells. To produce solar-gradeSi, high purity quartz is required. Quartz is available in abundance in the Earth’s crust in many parts of the world. SiO , which is 2 silica,is one ofthe major sources ofquartz. It has many applications, such as in the manufacture of glass,ceramics,syntheticinorganiccrystalphases,refractoryminerals,andotheruses.Althoughquartz isavailableinexcess,itisnotfoundinhighpurityinmanyplacesaroundtheworld.Quartzisasought- afteritemandisusedbymanyimportantindustriessuchassemiconductors,high-temperaturecruci- bles,and solar wafer/cellmanufacturing. Siliconisusedasarawmaterialinthechemicalandsemiconductorindustries.Itisalsousedinthe alloyingofsteel,castiron,andaluminum.Themajorportionofsiliconproductionisferrosiliconwhile theremainingportionthatisproducedismetallurgical-grade(MG)silicon.Metallurgical-gradesilicon is used inthe production ofsolar-grade silicon for solarwafer/cell manufacturing. Annually,millionsofmetrictonsofferrosiliconandsiliconmaterialarerefined.Siliconismostly usedinthemanufacturingofcement,mortars,ceramics,glass,andpolymers.Silicon-basedpolymers areadditionallyutilizedasoptionsincontrasttohydrocarbon-baseditems.Theycanshowupinnu- merous everydayproducts, for example, lubricants,adhesives, greases, skin and haircare items. Metallurgicalsiliconisusedinsteelmakingandinaluminumcastingasanalloyingagent.Itisused inmakingfumedsilica,whichisathickeningagent;silanes,whicharecouplingagents;andproducing silicones by the chemical industries.So,thereis a large demand for quartz material. 1.2 Quartz--the input for polysilicon production Thereisanincreasingdemandforsiliconmetalusedinthemanufactureofsolarcells,whichiscur- rentlyagrowingindustry.Nexttooxygen,siliconisthesecondmostabundantelementavailableon Earth. Si occurs only in an oxidized state in the form of rock quartz or other silicate materials. 1 SolarPVPower.https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-817626-9.00001-0 #2021ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved.
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