Solar Energy Conversion Systems In The Built Environment

391 Pages·2020·18.533 MB·English

by  Ion Visa, Anca Duta, Macedon Moldovan, Bogdan Burduhos, Mircea Neagoe

Green Energy and Technology
Ion Visa · Anca Duta ·
Macedon Moldovan · Bogdan Burduhos ·
Mircea Neagoe
Solar Energy
Conversion
Systems in
the Built
Environment
Green Energy and Technology
Climate change, environmental impact and the limited natural resources urge
scientific research and novel technical solutions. The monograph series Green
Energy and Technology serves as a publishing platform for scientific and
technological approaches to “green”—i.e. environmentally friendly and sustain-
able—technologies. While a focus lies on energy and power supply, it also covers
“green” solutions in industrial engineering and engineering design. Green Energy
and Technology addresses researchers, advanced students, technical consultants as
well as decision makers in industries and politics. Hence, the level of presentation
spans from instructional to highly technical. **Indexed in Scopus**.
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8059
Ion Visa Anca Duta Macedon Moldovan
(cid:129) (cid:129) (cid:129)
Bogdan Burduhos Mircea Neagoe
(cid:129)
Solar Energy Conversion
Systems in the Built
Environment
123
Ion Visa Anca Duta
R&D Centre: RenewableEnergy R&D Centre: RenewableEnergy
Systems andRecycling Systems andRecycling
Transilvania University of Brașov Transilvania University of Brașov
Brașov,Romania Brașov,Romania
MacedonMoldovan Bogdan Burduhos
R&D Centre: RenewableEnergy R&D Centre: RenewableEnergy
Systems andRecycling Systems andRecycling
Transilvania University of Brașov Transilvania University of Brașov
Brașov,Romania Brașov,Romania
Mircea Neagoe
R&D Centre: RenewableEnergy
Systems andRecycling
Transilvania University of Brașov
Brașov,Romania
ISSN 1865-3529 ISSN 1865-3537 (electronic)
Green Energy andTechnology
ISBN978-3-030-34828-1 ISBN978-3-030-34829-8 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-34829-8
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Preface
The concept of sustainable development was never contested since 1987 when it
was firstly introduced. However, the measures required to implement this concept
were not quickly identified and were even more slowly implemented in the
development strategies, all over the world. The main reasons are relying in the
complexityandspecificityofthesemeasuresthataremainlyfocusingontheenergy
requiredtofeedtheproductionprocesses,thebuiltenvironment,theagricultureand
inanyotheractivities inanysociety.Thisspecificity depends onobjective factors,
as the availability of certain natural resources that can be used to produce energy,
mainly renewable energy sources, but also on the features of the implementation
locationandoftheimplementingsociety.Thisiswhyonlyrecentlythesustainable
development implementation was practically approached, as e.g. by planning and
developing sustainable energy buildings or sustainable communities.
In these applications, the role of solar energy is highly important, as this is a
cost-free energy source that is readily available in any location on the Earth.
However, the daily and seasonal variability of the solar energy, that does not
necessarily follow the rhythm of the humans’ life and the associated energy
demand,raisessignificantbarriersinimplementingandoperatingasustainablebuilt
environmentbasedonlyonsolarenergyconversionsystems,inanylocationinthe
world.Thus,solutionshavetobeidentifiedtosolvespecificissuesthatcansupport
the development of a built environment with a high solar energy share and these
solutions have to be feasible, affordable and well suited to communities with dif-
ferent development levels and different levels offinancial resources.
Considering the real need for optimized solutions based on solar energy con-
version systems implemented in the built environment, the authors of this book
developed a complex material, focusing on the mostly used systems (photovoltaic
and solar-thermal systems) and on the specific problems that are faced when
implementing these in various locations. Further on, case studies are analysed as
thesecanbefurtherimprovedandreplicatedtogetapositiveresultinthequestfor
sustainability.
v
vi Preface
Thus, this book addresses the professionals working in the design and devel-
opment of solar energy conversion systems to be implemented in the built envi-
ronmentandaimsatprovidingstructuredinformationonthecurrentknowledgeand
main issues that do not have well-accepted solutions yet.
Thebookcontentwasdevelopedbyagroupofauthorsthatareworkingonthese
type of systems since many years and who are familiar with the trends and the
expectationsforthefutureinthefieldofsolarenergyconversionsystems.Thebook
includesresultsrecordedontheindoorandoutdoortestingrigsintheR&DCentre
Renewable Energy Systems and Recycling (RESREC), in the Transilvania
UniversityofBrașov,Romania,wherealltheauthorsareworking.Relevantin-field
results are included, coming from other research groups all over the world, with
many of which the authors have direct collaboration activities. Each three years,
teams working on sustainable energy present their results in the frame of the
International Conference on Sustainable Energy, CSE.
We invite you to read this book and contact us for any new idea or any coop-
eration youmight consider,asthis represents theviablepath towards theextended
implementation of the sustainable development concept, at different community
levels.
Brașov, Romania Ion Visa
2019 Anca Duta
Macedon Moldovan
Bogdan Burduhos
Mircea Neagoe
Contents
1 The Built Environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Building, Built Environment, Community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Energy Demand in the Built Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2.1 Energy Demand at Building Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2.2 Energy Demand at Community Level. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.3 The Energy Consumption in the Built Environment . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.4 Indicators for Buildings Efficiency and Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . 35
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2 Renewable Energy Sources and Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.1 Solar Energy in the Built Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.1.1 Solar Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.1.2 Solar Energy Available in the Built Environment . . . . . . . 82
2.2 Other Renewable Energy Sources in the Built Environment . . . . . 103
2.2.1 Geothermal Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
2.2.2 Bioenergy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
2.2.3 Wind Energy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
2.2.4 Hydro-energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
2.3 Solar Energy Conversion Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
2.3.1 Solar Thermal Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
2.3.2 Photovoltaic Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
2.4 Energy Mixes Based on Solar Energy Conversion Systems. . . . . . 144
2.4.1 Solar Thermal–Heat Pump Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
2.4.2 Solar Thermal–Biomass Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
2.4.3 Solar PV–Wind Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
2.4.4 Solar PV–Micro-hydro Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
vii
viii Contents
3 Increasing the Solar Share in Electricity Production in the Built
Environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
3.1 Photovoltaic Systems at Building and Community Level . . . . . . . 159
3.2 Design of the PV Systems Implemented in the Built
Environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
3.2.1 Special Requirements for Installing PV Systems . . . . . . . . 166
3.2.2 The Design Algorithm of PV Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
3.3 Increasing the Electrical Output of PV Systems by Using
Solar Tracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
3.3.1 Solar Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
3.3.2 Solar Tracking Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
3.3.3 Solar Tracking Algorithms and Programmes . . . . . . . . . . . 198
3.3.4 Case Study: Tracked Versus Fixed Tilted PV Systems. . . . 204
3.4 Exploitation and Maintenance of the PV Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
3.4.1 Exploitation of the PV Systems in the Built
Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
3.4.2 Maintenance of the PV Systems Implemented
in the Built Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
3.5 Photovoltaic—Wind Energy Mixes in the Built Environment . . . . 220
3.5.1 Examples of Photovoltaic—Wind Hybrid Systems. . . . . . . 221
3.5.2 Sizing the PV-Wind Hybrid Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
3.6 Economic and Financial Aspects of the PV Systems. . . . . . . . . . . 225
3.7 Integrating the Renewable Energy Systems in the Urban
Electrical Distribution and Transmission Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . 231
3.7.1 General Protection Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
3.7.2 Functional Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
3.7.3 Monitoring Requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
4 Increasing the Solar Share for Domestic Hot Water, Heating
and Cooling in the Built Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
4.1 Solar Thermal Systems in Buildings and at Community Level . . . 241
4.2 Design of the Solar Thermal Systems Implemented
in the Built Environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
4.3 Optimizing the Thermal Output of Solar Thermal Systems
by Using Solar Tracking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
4.3.1 Increasing the Thermal Energy Output by Forward
Tracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
4.3.2 Protection Against Overheating by Inverse Tracking . . . . . 269
4.3.3 Tracking Solar Thermal Collectors Applied on the
Buildings’ Facades. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
4.4 Increasing the Solar Energy Share in Meeting the Thermal
Energy Demand of a Building Through Solar Thermal
Facades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Contents ix
4.5 Exploitation and Maintenance of the Solar Thermal Systems
Implemented in the Built Environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
4.6 Renewable Energy Mixes Based on Solar Energy in nZEB. . . . . . 301
4.6.1 Solar Thermal–Geothermal Energy Mixes in Buildings . . . 303
4.6.2 Solar Thermal–Geothermal–Photovoltaic Energy Mixes . . . 306
4.7 Economic and Financial Aspects of Solar Thermal Systems
Implemented in the Built Environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
5 Increasing the Solar Share for Electrical and Thermal Energy
Production in the Built Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
5.1 PVT Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
5.1.1 PVT Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
5.2 PVT Integration in the Built Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
5.3 Economic and Financial Aspects of Building Integrated
PVT Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
6 Sustainable Communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
6.1 Nearly Zero Energy Community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
6.2 Steps in Implementing Renewable Energy Systems in NZEB
and in NZEC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
6.3 Operation and Energy Management. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
6.4 Case Studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
6.4.1 Rural Sustainable Communities, Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
6.4.2 Frederikshavn, Denmark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
6.4.3 University of California Davis, West Village, California,
USA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
6.4.4 Sino-Singapore Tianjin Eco-City, China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
6.4.5 Saerbeck, Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
6.4.6 The Genius Campus in the Transilvania University
of Brasov, Romania. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
6.5 Emergent Trends in Using Solar Energy at Community
Level. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379