Solar and Infrared Radiation Measurements, Second Edition

517 Pages·2019·44.508 MB·\517

by  Frank Vignola (Author), Joseph Michalsky (Author), Thomas Stoffel (Author)

Solar and Infrared
Radiation  Measurements
ENERGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT
SERIES EDITOR
Abbas Ghassemi
New Mexico State University
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Solar and Infrared
Radiation Measurements
Second Edition
Frank Vignola
Joseph Michalsky
Thomas Stoffel
CRC Press
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data
Names: Vignola, Frank, 1945- author. | Michalsky, Joseph, author. | Stoffel,
Thomas, author.
Title: Solar and infrared radiation measurements / Frank Vignola, Joseph
Michalsky, Thomas Stoffel.
Description: Second edition. | Boca Raton : CRC Press, Taylor & Francis
Group, 2020.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019013997 | ISBN 9781138096295 (hardback : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Solar radiation--Measurement--Textbooks. | Earth
temperature--Measurement--Textbooks. | Radiometers.
Classification: LCC QC912 .V56 2020 | DDC 523.7/2--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019013997
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at
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Dedication
We dedicate this book to our wives, Mary Lou Vignola,
Randi Michalsky, and Ann Stoffel, who provided encouragement
and support while we worked on the manuscript.

Contents
Preface to the Second Edition ..........................................................................................................xv
Preface to the First Edition ............................................................................................................xvii
Acknowledgments ...........................................................................................................................xix
Authors ............................................................................................................................................xxi
Chapter 1 Measuring Solar and Infrared Radiation .....................................................................1
Questions ......................................................................................................................5
References ....................................................................................................................5
Chapter 2 Definitions and Terminology ........................................................................................7
2.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................7
2.2 The Sun ..............................................................................................................7
2.3 Extraterrestrial Radiation ..................................................................................8
2.4 Solar Coordinates ..............................................................................................9
2.5 Zenith, Azimuth, and Hour Angles .................................................................14
2.6 Solar, Universal, and Local Standard Time ....................................................15
2.7 Solar Position Calculation Example ................................................................16
2.8 Sunrise and Sunset Times ...............................................................................20
2.9 Global, Direct Normal, and Diffuse Irradiance ..............................................20
2.10 Solar Radiation on Tilted Surfaces ..................................................................23
2.11 The Spectral Nature of Solar Radiation ..........................................................23
2.12 Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer ...................................26
2.12.1 Conduction .........................................................................................26
2.12.2 Convection .........................................................................................27
2.12.3 Radiative Heat Transfer .....................................................................28
2.13 Photodiodes and Solar Cell Characteristics ....................................................28
2.14 Models .............................................................................................................30
Questions ....................................................................................................................30
References ..................................................................................................................30
Chapter 3 Historic Milestones in Solar and Infrared Radiation Measurement ..........................33
3.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................33
3.2 Earliest Observations of the Sun and the Nature of Light ...............................33
3.3 Nineteenth-Century Radiometers ....................................................................37
3.3.1 Pouillet’s Pyrheliometer (1837) .........................................................37
3.3.2 Campbell-Stokes Sunshine Recorder (1853, 1879) ............................37
3.3.3 Ångström Electrical Compensation Pyrheliometer (1893) ................38
3.3.4 Callendar Pyranometer (1898) ...........................................................40
3.3.5 Ångström and Tulipan Pyrgeometers (1899) .....................................41
3.4 Operational Radiometers of the Twentieth Century ........................................41
3.4.1 Abbot Silver-Disk Pyrheliometer (1906) ...........................................41
3.4.2 Smithsonian Water-Flow Pyrheliometer (1910) .................................43
3.4.3 Marvin Pyrheliometer (1910) .............................................................43
vii
viii Contents
3.4.4 Ångström Pyranometer (1919) ...........................................................44
3.4.5 Kipp & Zonen Solarimeter (1924) .....................................................44
3.4.6 Robitzsch Bimetallic Actinograph (1932)..........................................45
3.4.7 Eppley 180° Pyrheliometer (1930) .....................................................46
3.4.8 Eppley Model PSP (1957) ..................................................................48
3.4.9 Yanishevsky Pyranometer (1957) ......................................................49
3.4.10 Eppley Model NIP (1957) ..................................................................51
3.4.11 Eppley Model Precision Infrared Radiometer (PIR) (1968) ..............53
3.4.12 Primary Absolute Cavity Radiometer (PACRAD) (1969) .................54
3.4.13 Eppley Model 8-48 (1969) .................................................................55
3.4.14 LI-COR Model LI-200SA (1971) ......................................................56
3.4.15 Rotating Shadowband Radiometer (1975) .........................................57
3.4.16 World Standard Group (1979)............................................................60
3.5 Recent Advances in Solar Measurements .......................................................61
3.5.1 Automatic Hickey–Frieden Cavity Radiometer ................................61
3.5.2 Total Irradiance Monitor (TIM) ........................................................63
3.5.3 Cryogenic Solar Absolute Radiometer-Measure the Integral
Transmittance (CSAR-MITRA) ........................................................64
3.6 Summary .........................................................................................................65
Questions ....................................................................................................................65
References ..................................................................................................................65
Chapter 4 Direct Normal Irradiance ...........................................................................................69
4.1 Overview of Direct Normal Irradiance ...........................................................69
4.2 Pyrheliometer Geometry .................................................................................72
4.3 Operational Thermopile Pyrheliometers .........................................................74
4.4 Absolute Cavity Radiometers ..........................................................................77
4.5 Uncertainty Analysis for Pyrheliometer Calibration .......................................78
4.6 Uncertainty Analysis for Operational Thermopile Pyrheliometers ................80
4.6.1 Window Transmittance, Receiver Absorptivity, and
Temperature Sensitivity .....................................................................81
4.6.2 Solar Zenith Angle Dependence .......................................................81
4.7 Uncertainty Analysis for Rotating Shadowband Radiometer Estimates
of Direct Normal Irradiance ............................................................................83
4.8 Direct Normal Irradiance Models ...................................................................84
4.8.1 Ground-Based Modeling ...................................................................84
4.8.2 Satellite Model Estimates ..................................................................84
4.9 Historical and Current Surface-Measured Direct Normal
Irradiance Data .......................................................................................86
4.10 Current Issues Regarding Direct Normal Irradiance Measurements ..............88
Questions ....................................................................................................................89
References ..................................................................................................................89
Chapter 5 Broadband Global Irradiance .....................................................................................91
5.1 Introduction to Global Horizontal Irradiance Measurements .........................91
5.2 Black-Disk Thermopile Pyranometers ............................................................97
5.2.1 Thermal Offsets ...............................................................................101
5.2.2 Nonlinearity .....................................................................................103
5.2.3 Spectral Response............................................................................103
Contents ix
5.2.4 Angle of Incidence Response ..............................................................104
5.2.5 Response Degradation.........................................................................107
5.2.6 Temperature Dependence ....................................................................108
5.2.7 Ice and Snow on Dome—Ventilators ..................................................108
5.2.8 An Optical Anomaly ...........................................................................109
5.3 Black-and-White Pyranometers .......................................................................111
5.3.1 Characteristics of Black-and-White Pyranometers .............................111
5.3.2 Lack of Thermal Offset .......................................................................114
5.4 Photodiode-Based Pyranometers ....................................................................115
5.4.1 Characterizing a Photodiode Pyranometer .........................................121
5.4.2 Removing Biases in Photodiode Pyranometer Measurements ...........124
5.4.3 Reference Solar Cells ..........................................................................130
5.5 Calibration of Pyranometers ...........................................................................131
5.5.1 Shade–Unshade Calibration Method ..................................................132
5.5.2 Summation Method Calibration ..........................................................135
5.6 Pyranometer Calibration Uncertainties ...........................................................137
5.6.1 Uncertainty Analysis Applied to Pyranometer Calibration ................139
5.6.2 An Example of the GUM Procedure Applied to the Calibration
Uncertainties of a Pyranometer ..........................................................141
5.6.3 Importance of Understanding Limitations of Percent
Uncertainties .................................................................................144
Questions ..................................................................................................................145
References ................................................................................................................146
Useful Links .............................................................................................................149
Chapter 6 Diffuse Irradiance ....................................................................................................151
6.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................151
6.2 Atmospheric Scattering Concepts ...................................................................151
6.3 Measuring Diffuse Irradiance .........................................................................153
6.3.1 Fixed Shadowband Measurements of Diffuse Irradiance ...................153
6.3.2 Calculated Diffuse Irradiance versus Shading Disk Diffuse..............155
6.3.3 Rotating Shadowband Diffuse Measurements ....................................156
6.4 Calibration of Diffuse Pyranometers ..............................................................157
6.5 Value of Accurate Diffuse Measurements ......................................................158
Questions ..................................................................................................................159
References ................................................................................................................160
Chapter 7 Solar Spectral Measurements ...................................................................................161
7.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................161
7.2 The Extraterrestrial Solar Spectrum ...............................................................161
7.3 Atmospheric Interactions ................................................................................163
7.3.1 Rayleigh Scattering .............................................................................163
7.3.2 Aerosol Scattering and Absorption .....................................................163
7.3.3 Gas Absorption ...................................................................................165
7.3.4 Transmission of the Atmosphere .........................................................169
7.4 Broad Filter Radiometry ..................................................................................170
7.4.1 Photometry ..........................................................................................170
7.4.2 Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR) ........................................173
7.4.3 UVA and UVB ....................................................................................174