Soil Magnetism. Applications in Pedology, Environmental Science and Agriculture

450 Pages·2016·87.53 MB·English

by  Neli Jordanova (Auth.)

Soil Magnetism
Applications in Pedology,
Environmental Science and Agriculture
Neli Jordanova
Full Professor,
National Institute of Geophysics, Geodesy and Geography,
Bulgarian Academy of Sciences,
Sofia Bulgaria
AMSTERDAM(cid:129)BOSTON(cid:129)HEIDELBERG(cid:129)LONDON
NEWYORK(cid:129)OXFORD(cid:129)PARIS(cid:129)SANDIEGO
SANFRANCISCO(cid:129)SINGAPORE(cid:129)SYDNEY(cid:129)TOKYO
AcademicPressisanimprintofElsevier
AcademicPressisanimprintofElsevier
125LondonWall,LondonEC2Y5AS,UnitedKingdom
525BStreet,Suite1800,SanDiego,CA92101-4495,UnitedStates
50HampshireStreet,5thFloor,Cambridge,MA02139,UnitedStates
TheBoulevard,LangfordLane,Kidlington,OxfordOX51GB,UnitedKingdom
Copyright©2017ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved.
Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproducedortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronicor
mechanical,includingphotocopying,recording,oranyinformationstorageandretrievalsystem,without
permissioninwritingfromthepublisher.Detailsonhowtoseekpermission,furtherinformationaboutthe
Publisher’spermissionspoliciesandourarrangementswithorganizationssuchastheCopyrightClearance
CenterandtheCopyrightLicensingAgency,canbefoundatourwebsite:www.elsevier.com/permissions.
ThisbookandtheindividualcontributionscontainedinitareprotectedundercopyrightbythePublisher(other
thanasmaybenotedherein).
Notices
Knowledgeandbestpracticeinthisfieldareconstantlychanging.Asnewresearchandexperiencebroadenour
understanding,changesinresearchmethods,professionalpractices,ormedicaltreatmentmaybecome
necessary.
Practitionersandresearchersmustalwaysrelyontheirownexperienceandknowledgeinevaluatingandusing
anyinformation,methods,compounds,orexperimentsdescribedherein.Inusingsuchinformationormethods
theyshouldbemindfuloftheirownsafetyandthesafetyofothers,includingpartiesforwhomtheyhavea
professionalresponsibility.
Tothefullestextentofthelaw,neitherthePublishernortheauthors,contributors,oreditors,assumeany
liabilityforanyinjuryand/ordamagetopersonsorpropertyasamatterofproductsliability,negligenceor
otherwise,orfromanyuseoroperationofanymethods,products,instructions,orideascontainedinthe
materialherein.
LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData
AcatalogrecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheLibraryofCongress
BritishLibraryCataloguing-in-PublicationData
AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary
ISBN:978-0-12-809239-2
ForinformationonallAcademicPresspublications
visitourwebsiteathttps://www.elsevier.com/
Publisher:CandiceJanco
AcquisitionEditor:CandiceJanco
EditorialProjectManager:EmilyThomson
ProductionProjectManager:PaulPrasadChandramohan
CoverDesigner:MarkRogers
TypesetbyTNQBooksandJournals
To Diana
Foreword
IacceptedwithgreathonorandpleasuretheinvitationtowriteaforewordtotheworkofNeliJor-
danova,titledSoilMagnetism:ApplicationsinPedology,EnvironmentalScienceandArcheology.I
havetosaythatIhaveknownProf.Jordanovaformanyyears,sincewhenshespentsome3yearsasa
promisingyoungpostdoctoralatourinstitute.Duringthisstay,wehadmanyopportunitiestowork
together and to discuss different issues of soil and environmental magnetism, a field that was
emerginginthattime.Nelibroughttooursmallteamveryneededstimulusdaknowledgeofsoils,
whichwasthatnecessarycomplementtoourrock-magneticexpertise.Duringournumerousdiscus-
sions, we came to clear agreement that soil magnetism is a very promising field of research, with
many potential applications, but requires efficient and close interdisciplinary cooperation between
soil scientists and (geo)physicists (rock magnetists). Both magnetism and soils have a complex
and “heterogeneous” nature, with seemingly no overlap. However, they have much in commond
iron-bearing minerals, in particular different forms of iron oxides. Rock magnetists have facilities
andexpertisetodetermine(oratleastestimate)thetype,concentration,andgrain-sizedistribution
ofironoxides.Basedonthisknowledge,onemayassesstheiroriginanddiageneticpathways.Then,
thepartnerexperiencedinsoilorenvironmentalsciencesmaydiscussthecontrollingeffectsandpro-
cesses such as, for example, climatic conditions (past or present), erosion, land use, pollution, etc.
During the past few decades, soil magnetism research has made evident progress. At the end of
the last century, the studies reported on simple observations that, for example, the concentration
of iron oxides deposited from the atmosphere in the topsoil decreased exponentially with distance
fromdominantsourceofemissions.Atpresent,theauthorsaddressanddiscussmuchmorecomplex
issues, ranging from determining soil properties with respect to unexploded ordnance detection to
arablesoildegradationduetoagriculture,aswellasanumberofstudiesdealingwithreconstruction
of past climatic changes or human activities. Neli Jordanovahas a great advantage that she has al-
ways been well aware of this complexity of soil magnetism. With her knowledge and attitude, she
has been able to cover a wide range of subjects, and the present work represents the extent of her
research through thepresent. This work isa good compilation ofahuge amountofcomplexinfor-
mation on general soil properties along with specific magnetic properties of a wide range of soil
types. The work is well structured into 10 chapters, five of which are devoted to specific groups
ofsoils.NeliJordanovacoveredsoilsfromBulgaria,soilswithwhichsheisthatfamiliar,inaddition
tomanyusefulresultsandreferencesrelatedtodifferentsoilsworldwide.Threechaptersaredevoted
to explanation of the advantages and possible applications of soil magnetism. Thus, soil scientists
maybenefitfromlearningaboutmagneticproperties,presentedinanoncomplexway.Ontheother
hand,rockmagnetistsmayacquirenewknowledge(orextendexistingknowledge)onprocessesthat
takeplaceindifferenttypesofsoilsandaffectpopulationsofironoxides.Thisinterdisciplinarityis,
along with the range of reported soils, the main “gunpowder” of this work. However, being a rock
magnetist, I would expect somewhat more detailed introduction of various magnetic parameters,
whichare used in thework. In particular, soilscientists would benefitfrom explanation of howin-
dividualmagneticparameterscancontributetoaddressingthethreemainquestions:whatisthetype,
concentrationand grain-sizedistributionofiron oxidesin soils. Despite thisdrawbackIfoundthis
xiii
xiv FOREWORD
workveryusefulforsoilscientists,environmentalists,androckmagnetistsatdifferentlevelsdfrom
universitystudentstospecializedprofessionals.Afterfewpreviouslypublishedworksdealingwith
environmentalmagnetism(e.g.,MaherandThompson,1999;EvansandHeller,2003;seetheIntro-
duction),thepresentworkrepresentsthenextlogicalstep,presentingsoilmagnetismfromthepoint
of viewof complex soil sciences.
Eduard Petrovsky
Institute ofGeophysics, TheCzech Academy ofSciences, Prague,Czech Republic
Acknowledgments
WritingthisbookwasachallengingtaskformeandIwouldnotbeabletocompileallthedata,analyze
them,andputintoasystematicorderwithoutthehelpofmanycolleaguesandfriends.Iamgratefulto
Prof. DSc. Mary Kovacheva for continuous support during the years and many fruitful discussions.
I would like to thank my colleagues Petar Petrov and Rositsa Mihajlova from the Palaeomagnetic
Laboratory at the National Institute of Geophysics, Geodesy and Geography in Sofia for persistent
help over the years in the field sampling campaigns and laboratory magnetic measurements on the
soil profiles.
ValuablediscussionsandcommonworkwithDr.EduardPetrovsky´ andDr.Ale(cid:1)sKapickafromthe
InstituteofGeophysicsattheCzechAcademyofSciencesontheapplicationofenvironmentalmagne-
tismforevaluationofanthropogenicpollutioninspiredmetostudythenaturalmagneticsignatureof
soils developedunder different environmental conditions.
Dedicatedworkonmagnetismofdifferentsoiltypesbenefitedgreatlyfromseveralresearchpro-
jects carried out at the Palaeomagnetic Laboratory in Sofiadthe SCOPES Project IB7320-110723
“EnvironmentalApplicationsofSoilMagnetismforSustainableLandUse”;2005e2008withpartners
from the Institute of Geophysics, ETH (Zurich), Prof. Dr. Ann Hirt and Institute for Terrestrial
Ecology,SoilChemistry,ETH(Zurich),Prof.Dr.RubenKretzschmar,towhomIwouldliketothank
forprovidingaccesstotheirlaboratoryfacilitiesandfortheusefuldiscussions.OurworkintheFP7
Collaborative Project No. 211386 “Interactions between soil related scienceseLinking geophysics,
soilscienceanddigitalsoilmapping”(iSOIL)gaveustheopportunitytolookforthepossibleappli-
cationsofsoilmagnetismfromanewpointofviewandIwouldliketothankallourpartnersforhelp-
ful cooperation.
IstronglyappreciateusefulcommentsanddiscussionswithAssoc.Prof.Dr.TomaShishkovfrom
the Institute of Soil Science, Agrotechnologies and Plant Protection “N. Pushkarov” (Sofia), who
helped in description of the soil profiles, included in this work, and their correlation to the WRB
classification. I am also grateful to Assoc. Prof. Dr. Dimo Dimov from the Department of Geology
and Geography at the Sofia University “St. Kl. Ohridski” for valuable help during the sampling
campaigns andfor providinggeological information and maps.
IwouldliketothankLouisaHutchins,anAssociateAcquisitionsEditoratElsevierLtd.,whofirst
invited me to propose this book project. I further highly appreciate the help of Candice Janco
(ELS-HBE)forputtingtheprojectforward.IamgratefultoEmilyThomson(ELS-OXF)fordedicated
help and encouragement during preparation ofthe book.
Last, but not least, I am very grateful and indebted to my family, and especially my sister, for
encouragements,constant support, andinspiring discussions.
Neli Jordanova
Sofia, July 2016
xv
Abbreviations
MAGNETIC PARAMETERS
ARM Anhystereicremanence,units(Am2/kg)
B Coerciveforce,units(mT)
c
B Coercivityofremanence,units(mT)
cr
HIRM Hardisothermalremanentmagnetization,units(Am2/kg)
IRM Isothermalremanence,units(Am2/kg)
M Saturationremanentmagnetization,units(Am2/kg)
rs
M Saturationmagnetization,units(Am2/kg)
s
SIRM Saturationisothermalremanentmagnetization,units(Am2/kg)
T Curietemperature,units((cid:1)C)
c
T Unblockingtemperature,units((cid:1)C)
ub
c Mass-specificmagneticsusceptibility,units(m3/kg)
c Anhystereticsusceptibility,units(m3/kg)
ARM
c Frequency-dependentmagneticsusceptibility,units(m3/kg)
fd
c % Percentfrequency-dependentmagneticsusceptibility,units(%)
fd
c Highfieldmagneticsusceptibility,units(m3/kg)
hf
L Volumemagneticsusceptibility,unitsSI
OTHER
DCB Dithionite-citrate-bicarbonate(selectiveFe-extractionmethod)
DRS Diffusereflectancespectroscopy
Fe Dithionite-extractibleiron
d
Fe Oxalate-extractibleiron
o
Fe (Fe ) Totalironcontent
t tot
MAP Meanannualprecipitation
MAT Meanannualtemperature
MD Multidomain
pH Soilreaction
PSD Pseudoesingledomain
REE RearEarthelements
SD Singledomain
SEM Scanningelectronmicroscopy
SP Superparamagnetic
XRD X-raydiffraction
XRF X-rayfluorescence
xvii
Introduction
SoilcoverisnotsimplyoneoftheEarth’scompartments;itisthekeyelementintheCriticalzone,where
complexanddynamicinteractionstakeplacebetweenrock,soil,water,air,andlivingorganisms(NRC,
2001). Taking into account that soil formation requires centuries to thousands of years (Schaetzl and
Anderson,2009),soilisconsideredtobeanonrenewableresourcethatmustbepreservedandmanagedfor
futuregenerations. Today’s challenges of our society, facing climate changes and a growing world pop-
ulation,requiredetailedknowledgeontheroleofsoilsinthedynamicsoftheecosystemsatbothglobaland
localscales.Themajorthreatstoecosystemfunctioning,suchassoilerosion,nutrientcycling,andwater
quality, call for a wide interdisciplinary approach, including scientific disciplines such as pedology,
ecology,atmosphericchemistryandphysics,biogeochemistry,hydrology,geology,andgeophysics.
Iron in soil is a key element accomplishing the interaction between the major Earth’s cyclesd
carbon cycle (C-cycle) and dust cycle (D-cycle) (Shao et al., 2011). As a building element in the
mineralfractionofthesoil,ironoxidesplayanimportantroleintheinteractionsbetweendifferentsoil
compartments.Keepinginmindtherelativelylowamountofironinsoils(sometimeslessthan0.1%),
their identification and characterization are not always straightforward (Cornell and Schwertmann,
2003). Due to the high sensitivity of the soil magnetic signature toward even minor amounts of Fe
oxidespresent,theapplicationofmagneticmethodsinsoilstudiesprovidesanopportunitytoobtain
valuable information about soil magnetic mineralogy, geochemistry, redox conditions, and func-
tioning, necessaryfor the developmentof soilmanagement strategies andpractices inagriculture.
Soilmagnetismisoneofthebranchesinenvironmentalmagnetismstudies,establishedasascientific
discipline in the mid-20th century and giving valuable contribution for reconstructing processes and
factors,thatdrivethemajorenvironmentalprocessesonEarth,aswellasonotherplanets.However,dueto
thegeneticrootsofsoilmagnetismingeophysics,littleisknowninthesoilsciencecommunityaboutthe
applicabilityofthismethodology.Apartfromthepalaeoclimatereconstructionsbasedonmagneticproxy
records,whichisawidelyusedapproach,theotheraspectsofapplicationsofsoilmagneticstudiesin
pedologyandagriculturearelittlerecognizedbythegeneralearthscienceaudience.Ontheotherhand,
geophysicistsworkingonsoilmagnetismfacedifficultiesinunderstandingandinterpretingthemineral
magneticsignaturewithintheframeoftherealsoilsystemvariabilityandpeculiaritiesofthepedogenic
processes.Theaimofthisbookistobridgethisgap,providinganup-to-datesynthesisofthemagnetismof
differentsoilorderswithrespecttosoil-formingfactorsandthespecificgeochemistryofironcompounds
in various pedogenic regimes. Revealing the possibilities of the magnetic methodology for resolving
specificproblemsinthestudiesofsoilstowideraudienceistheultimategoal,whichhopefullyisachieved.
TheauthorusesmostlyexamplesfromherstudiesonsoilsfromBulgaria,butshealwaysreferstothe
internationalsoilclassificationsystem(WRB),whichallowsreaderstoconsidertheresultsinacommon
perspective.One ofthe mainobstacles in compiling the soilmagnetism studies available divided into
majorsoilorderswasthecorrectcorrelationbetweenthetwocommonlyusedclassificationsystemsdthe
WRB(FAO)andtheSoilTaxonomy(USA).Somestudiesuseonlynationalclassificationsystems,which
imposedtheneedtolookforreliablecorrelationwiththeinternationalclassifications.Inthisbook,the
correlationbetweenthemajorsoilclassificationsystemsismadeaccordingtoAHandbookofSoilTer-
minology.CorrelationandClassification,editedbyKrasilnikovetal.(2009).
SoilcoverinBulgariareflectstheevolutionofthenaturalprocessessincethePliocene,influenced
by neotectonic and anthropogenic factors. The wide variability of the modern climate conditions,
xix
xx Introduction
expressed in five different climate temperatureemoisture regimes identified (thermic-xeric; mesic-
xeric; mesic-ustic; mesic-udic; cryic-udic), imposed on the wide variations in parent rock lithology,
neotectonics,andbiodiversityresultedinthedevelopmentofvarioussoils,classifiedto20of28main
FAOsoiltaxonomicunitsinBulgaria(ShishkovandKolev,2014).Thissoildiversitycontrastswiththe
relatively small territoryofBulgaria, being about 110,000km2.
Thestructureofthebookaimsfirsttointroducethemajorterminology,facts,anddefinitionsfrom
themagnetismofnaturalmaterialsinChapter1,includingtheexistingtheoriesandhypothesesonthe
pedogenicmagneticenhancementandpathwaysofirontransformationsinvarioussoilenvironments,
followedbyadetaileddescriptionoflaboratoryprocedures,measurements,andinstrumentationused
inthefollowingchapters.Specialconsiderationisgiventothedifferencesinsamplingstrategiesinsoil
scienceandenvironmentalmagnetism.Chapters2to6presentdetailedmagneticstudiesofmastersoil
profilesofthemajorsoiltypesfromBulgariainrelationtopublishedresearchonmagnetismofsoils
fromthesameorderinotherpartsoftheworld.Atthebeginningofeachchapter,ashortoverviewof
themaincharacteristics[physical,(geo)chemical]andformationmechanismofeachsoilorderandits
world spatial distribution is presented. The last section in each of the Chapters 2 to 7 discusses
the pedogenesis of the iron oxides in the corresponding soil order, as reflected in soil magnetism.
Chapter 7 deals with the magnetic properties of soils from the Antarctic Peninsula (the Livingston
Island). Chapter 8 summarizes all major regularities, uniquely characteristic for each particular soil
order in an attempt to reveal the possibilities of the magnetic technique for discrimination, classifi-
cation, and identification of the soil processes and types. Mapping of topsoil magnetic properties in
Bulgaria,statisticaldataanalysisrevealingthemainfactorscontrollingthevariabilityofthedata,and
therolesofthesoiltypeandlithologyarepresentedinChapter9.Chapter10introducestherangeof
possible applications of soil magnetism in pedology, agriculture, environmental pollution studies,
paleoclimate reconstructions and evaluation of the effects of fire on soil magnetism, landmine
clearance operations and forensic research, and archaeology. Examples from different studies
worldwide are presented.
Undergraduate students, postgraduate students, geophysicists, soil scientists, geochemists, and
professionals working on interdisciplinary projects in earth science are intended as book’s main
audience. The presented examples and case studies show how the knowledge of soil properties and
genesis, combined with basic physics, chemistry, and magnetic mineralogy of the soil, helps in
resolving various environmental andapplied problems.
REFERENCES
Cornell, R., Schwertmann, U., 2003. The Iron Oxides. Structure, Properties, Reactions, Occurrence and Uses
(Weinheim,NewYork).
Krasilnikov,P.,Mart´ı,J.-J.I.,Arnold,R.,Shoba,S.(Eds.),2009.AHandbookofSoilTerminology,Correlation
andClassification.Earthscan,UK,ISBN978-1-84407-683-3(hardback).
National Research Council (NRC), 2001. Basic Research Opportunities in Earth Science. National Academy
Press,Washington,DC.
Schaetzl,R.,Anderson,A.,2009.Soils.GenesisandGeomorphology.CambridgeUniv.Press,UK,ISBN978-0-
521-81201-6.
Shao,Y.,Wyrwoll,K.-H.,Chappel,A.,Huang,J.,Lin,Z.,McTainsh,G.H.,Mikami,M.,Tanaka,T.Y.,Wang,X.,
Yoon,S.,2011.Dustcycle:anemergingcorethemeinEarthsystemscience.AeolianRes.2,181e204.
Shishkov,T.,Kolev,N.,2014.TheSoilsofBulgaria.WorldSoilsBookSeries.Springer.http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/
978-94-007-7784-2.
CHAPTER
1
MAGNETISM OF MATERIALS
OCCURRING IN THE
d
ENVIRONMENT BASIC
OVERVIEW
INTRODUCTION
The magnetic signature of the soil is a complex mixture of contributions from different mineral
constituents, including diamagnetic, paramagnetic, and ferromagnetic phases. For detailed informa-
tiononthemagnetismofmaterials,readerscanrefertoanumberofexcellenttextbookssuchasthose
byChikazumi(2010)andCoey(2009).Withanemphasisonterrestrialmagneticminerals,Dunlopand
O¨zdemir’s(1997)bookisalsoanoutstandingreferencework.Generally,themagneticsignalofsoilsis
dominated by the presence of minor amounts of strongly magnetic ferrimagnetic iron (Fe) oxidesd
magnetite (Fe3O4), maghemite (g-Fe2O3), titanomagnetites (Fe2(cid:1)xTixO4), and, rarely, pyrhotite
(Fe S ). Although in higher absolute amounts (wt%), iron oxyhydroxide goethite (a-FeOOH) and
3 4
hematite (a-Fe O ) are antiferromagnetic (e.g., having small saturation magnetization values
2 3
comparedwiththeferrimagnets),andtheircontributiontothetotalmagneticsignalofsoilsisstrongly
suppressed. One important feature of the ferromagnetic materials is their different magnetic state
depending on the size of the graindthe so-called magnetic domain structure. The very small
nano-sized ferrimagnetic grains of magnetite and maghemite (5e15nm diameter) are called
superparamagnetic (SP) and play an important role in the soil’s magnetism, as far as the pedogenic
magnetic oxides are usually within this size range. Superparamagnetic particles have a distinctive
magnetic behaviordthey do not retain any remanent magnetization but possess very high magnetic
susceptibility compared with the larger grains of the same mineral (Dunlop and O¨zdemir, 1997).
Slightlylargergrainsizesleadtoasingledomain(SD)state.TheSDparticlesofmagnetite/maghemite
(sizes of about 20nm diameter) show the highest magnetic stability; that is, their remanent
magnetization is most stable against demagnetizing factors (thermal agitation, alternating magnetic
fields,time).Inlargerparticlesmagneticdomainsform,andtheparticlesareinapseudo-SD(PSD)or
multidomain (MD) state (Dunlop andO¨zdemir, 1997).
1
SoilMagnetism.http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-809239-2.00001-2
Copyright©2017ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved.