Soil atlas of the northern circumpolar region

73 Pages·2010·275.268 MB·English

by  Arwyn Jones, European Commission. Joint Research Centre., Institute for Environment and Sustainability (European Commission. Joint Research Centre), et al

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What is soil? Where does soil come from? What is special about soil in the northern latitudes? B
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How do our activities affect soil? What are the links between soil and climate change?
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The first ever SOIL ATLAS OF THE NORTHERN CIRCUMPOLAR REGION uses striking maps, informative texts and E SOIL ATL A S OF THE
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stunning photographs to answer and explain these and other questions. C O
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Leading soil scientists from Europe, Russia, Canada, Greenland and the United States of America have collaborated
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under the auspice of the International Polar Year 2007-2009 to produce this unique document. Using state of T
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the art computer mapping techniques, the SOIL ATLAS OF THE NORTHERN CIRCUMPOLAR REGION shows the A
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changing nature of soil in northern territories.

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The SOIL ATLAS OF THE NORTHERN CIRCUMPOLAR REGION explains the origin and role of soil, describes the
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different soil types that can be found in this environment and their relevance to global issues. The atlas also T
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discusses the possible impacts of climate change on soil and the relationship between soil and global climate. CIRCUMPOLAR
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The SOIL ATLAS OF THE NORTHERN CIRCUMPOLAR REGION is more than just a normal atlas. Rather, this volume
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presents an interpretation of an often neglected natural resource that surrounds and affects us all. O
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The SOIL ATLAS OF THE NORTHERN CIRCUMPOLAR REGION is an essential reference to a non-renewable resource
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that is fundamental for life on this planet. H REGION
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The properties of soil vary tremendously from region to region.

Plants are dependent on soil for the supply of water, nutrients and C
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as a medium for growing. Soil stores, filters, buffers and transforms
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substances that are introduced into the environment. This capability is
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crucial in producing and protecting water supplies and for regulating
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greenhouse gases. Soil is a provider of raw materials. Soil is also an
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incredible habitat and gene pool. Soil is a fundamental component of
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our landscape and cultural heritage.
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Despite the harsh environment and difficult living conditions, astonishing R
beauty can appear where soil conditions permit. The Purple Saxifrage (Saxifraga
oppositifolia) is common all over the High Arctic. The plant serves as the territorial

flower of Nunavut, the northernmost territory of Canada. This Purple Saxifrage
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was photographed at a latitude of 81°North on Ellesmere Island, Canada. (GB)
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Lake shore erosion leads to the thawing of permafrost in peatlands of northern
Canada. Blocks of peat slump into the water causing landscape changes. (PK)
Permafrost-affected soils are of particular importance because they
contain large amounts of organic carbon, which as a consequence
of the climatic warming of the Northern Hemisphere, could result
in large amounts of carbon dioxide and methane being released
to the atmosphere.
Ice is a key component of soil in the northern circumpolar region. The white material
in the centre of the photograph is ice that has grown within the soil to form a wedge
that displaces the surrounding material. The dark surface layer is peat, a soil consisting
primarily of the partly-decomposed remains of vegetation. (CT)
EUR 23499 EN
European Commission
Price (excluding VAT) in Luxembourg €25
JRC_circumpolar_cover.indd 1 8/2/10 16:28:39
SOIL ATL A S OF THE
NORTHERN
CIRCUMPOLAR
REGION
An initiative of the European Union to support the
Activity No. 1210 under IPY Expression of Intent
Principal Editors Acknowledgements
PUBLISHING DETAILS
The citation for this document is: Legal Notice The citations for the soil data used in this atlas are: Arwyn Jones1, Vladimir Stolbovoy1,5, Charles Tarnocai2, Gabriele Broll3, Otto Spaargaren4 and Luca This atlas builds on the considerable knowledge on the circumpolar region that has been amassed
Jones, A., V. Stolbovoy, C. Tarnocai, G. Broll, O. Spaargaren and L. • Cryosol Working Group. 2004. Northern and Mid- Montanarella1 through the efforts of many individuals and organisations. Without this considerable effort, the
Montanarella (eds.), 2009, Soil Atlas of the Northern Circumpolar Neither the European Commission nor any person acting on Latitude Soil Database, Version 1. Dataset available on-line, production of this atlas would not have been possible. The atlas demonstrates fruitful collaboration
Region. European Commission, Office for Official Publications of behalf of the Commission is responsible for the use that might be http://www.daac.ornl.gov 1 European Commission Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability Land between the European Commission’s Joint Research Centre in Ispra, Italy and numerous, soil science
the European Communities, Luxembourg. 142 pp. made of the following information. Management & Natural Hazards Unit, SOIL Action, 21027 Ispra (Varese), Italy experts, institutions and universities. In particular, the European Soil Bureau Network, scientists of
• FAO, 1990. Digital Soil Map of the World. Distributed by UN the International Union of Soil Sciences (IUSS)/International Permafrost Association (IPA) Cryosol
© European Communities, 2009 Cover FAO, http://www.fao.org/ 2 Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 960 Carling Ave, Ottawa, ON K1A 0C6, Canada Working Group, the Russian Academy of Sciences Institute of Geography, Institute of Geocryology,
Reproduction authorised for the sole purpose of teaching or • Tarnocai, C., D. Swanson, J. Kimble, and G. Broll. 2007 Northern Yakutia, Institute of Biological Resources of the North- Polar Ural, Dokuchaev Soil Science Institute
scientific research provided the source is acknowledged. The striking map on the cover depicts the major soil types of the Circumpolar Soil Carbon Database, Digital database. Research 3 Institute of Geography, University of Osnabrück, Seminarstr. 19, D-49074 Osnabrück, of Russian Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, University of
Osnabrück, ISRIC – World Soil Information and the University of Alaska Fairbanks. All are thanked
northern circumpolar region according to the World Reference Branch, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Ottawa, Canada. Germany
Published by the Office for Official Publications of the European for sharing their knowledge.
Base for Soil Resources classification and correlation scheme. The http://wms1.agr.gc.ca/NortherCircumpolar/northercircumpolar.zip
Communities, L-2995 Luxembourg, Luxembourg.
dark blue regions indicate the presence of Cryosols, permafrost- • Van Liedekerke, M., Panagos, P., Daroussin, J., Jones, R., Jones, 4 ISRIC – World Soil Information, Duivendaal 9, 6701 AR Wageningen, The Netherlands The initiative to produce this atlas was supported by Jerry Brown, the President of the International
EUR 23499 — Atlas of Northern Circumpolar Soil affected soils covering the arctic deserts, tundra and the boreal A. & Montanarella, L., 2004. The European Soil Database Permafrost Association (IPA) and Vladimir Kotlyakov, Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences.
Catalogue number LB-NA-23499-EN-C zones. The green colour depicts Podzols which are developed Version 2.0. Distributed by the European Commission Joint 5 Institute of Geography, Staromonetny 29, 119017 Moscow, Russia The Editors wish to recognise the valuable contributions of the proof readers, Dr. Robert Jones,
under coniferous boreal forests on course-textured, quartz-rich
Research Centre, http://eusoils.jrc.ec.europa.eu/ Cranfield University National Soil Resources Institute (UK) in tightening up the readability and grammar
ISBN 978-92-79-09770-6 deposits. The distribution of fine-textured Albeluvisols and Luvisols
of the atlas.
under boreal coniferous and mixed forests zones are shown in Soil maps are produced by the Soil Action of the Land Management
ISSN 1018-5593
pink. The widespread olive-grey of the Histosols (organic-rich and Natural Hazards Unit, Institute for Environment and Authors In addition, the authors are grateful for the flexibility, understanding and professionalism of Chrissy
doi 10.2788/95795 soils), together with the bluish tones representing Gleysols and Sustainability, European Commission DG Joint Research Centre, Bond, Ian Dewsbery, Jon Gammage and David McCutcheon at Lovell Johns Ltd (UK) throughout the,
Stagnosols, indicate that large areas of the northern circumpolar Ispra, Italy and Lovell Johns Ltd, UK. sometimes tortuous, process of assembling this publication.
2009 – 142 pp. – 30.1 x 42.4 cm Oleg Anisimov, State Hydrological Institute of Roshydromet, St Petersburg, Russia
region are wet in nature. The Fluvisols on the floodplains of the
Final design and graphical support by Lovell Johns Limited, Finally, every effort has been made to trace copyright holders. The Editors offer their sincerest
Cataloguing data can be found at the end of this publication. major rivers that drain the landscape are demarcated through
10 Hanborough Buisiness Park, Long Hanborough, Witney, apologies and thanks for any unintentional omissions and would be pleased to add an acknowledgment
Õlafur Arnalds, Agricultural University of Iceland, Reykjavik, Iceland
thin turquoise strips. The red colour on the map indicates the
Oxfordshire, OX29 8RU, United Kingdom. www.lovelljohns.com in future editions of the atlas.
Andosols of Iceland, an area of volcanic activity in the region. The
Printed in Luxembourg by Imprimerie Centrale SA white area in the centre depicts the average maximum extent of Arnold Arnoldusen, Norwegian Forest and Landscape Institute, Ås, Norway
sea ice which is currently shrinking due to climate change.
Printed on white chlorine-free paper
James Bockheim, University of Wisconsin, Madison, USA The Editorial Board would like to thank the providers of graphical elements (photographs, diagrams,
Cartographic Representations illustrative maps) for their permission to use their material in the atlas. All contributors are listed below:
Henrik Breuning-Madsen, University of Copenhagen, Denmark
How to obtain EU publications Cartographic features depicted on the maps of this atlas are derived A. Brollo (AB), A. Jones (AJ), A. Kizyako (AK), A. Lehmann (AL), A. Mahoney (AM), Arctic Monitoring and
from the Digital Chart of the World. The cartographic data in the Gabriele Broll, University of Osnabrück, Germany Assessment Programme (AMAP), Andrea Petrocchi (AP), B. H. Jakobsen (BHJ), Center for International
Publications for sale: atlas do not have an explicit legal status; hence, no legal aspects Earth Science Information Network (CIESIN), C-L. Ping (CP), C. Tarnocai (CT), D. Konyushkov (DK), D.
via EU Bookshop (http://bookshop.europa.eu); should be derived from the information depicted on any of the Jerry Brown, International Permafrost Association, USA Russell (DR), D. Walter (DW), D Wagner (DWA), E. Dobos (ED), E. Micheli (EM), E-M. Pfeiffer (EP), E.
maps in this publication. Solbakken (ES), European Space Agency (ESA), E. Zazovskaya (EZ), Food and Agriculture Organization of
from your bookseller by quoting the title, publisher and/or ISBN Roman Desyatkin, Institute of Biological Problems of Cryolithozone, Russian Academy of Sciences, the United Nations (FAO), F-K. Holtmeier (FKH), F. Nibart-Devouard (FND), G. Broll (GB), G. Mazhitova
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Chart_of_the_World
number; Yakutia, Russia (GM), Government of the Northwest Territories (GNT), G. Toth (GT), H. Ahlenius (HA), H. Breuning-Madsen
(HBM), H. Christiansen (HC), H. Grobe (HG), I. McCallum (IM), International Permafrost Association (IPA),
by contacting one of our sales agents directly. You can obtain their Soil Data
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), I. Sokolov (IS), ISRIC - World Soil Information (ISRIC),
contact details on the Internet (http://bookshop.europa.eu) or by The soil maps presented in this atlas are derived from several Sergey Goryachkin, Institute of Geography, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
J. Brown (JB), J. Bockheim (JGB), J. Hollis (JH), J. Kimble (JK), J. Ruck (JR), Joint Research Centre (JRC), L.
sending a fax to [phone].
projects aiming to compile a harmonised soil database covering
Eriksson (LE), Lovell Johns Ltd (LJ), L. Kutzbach (LK), M. Balks (MB), M. Drewnik (MD), M. Grigoriev (MG),
the North American and Eurasian continents. Bjarne Holm Jakobsen, University of Copenhagen, Denmark
M. Karatay (MK), M. Leibman (ML), M. Serdem (MS), Manitoba Soil Survey (MSS), National Aeronautics and
Free publications:
The maps showing the World Reference Base soil names were Space Administration (NASA), National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), National Pollen
via EU Bookshop (http://bookshop.europa.eu); derived from three sources: Arwyn Jones, European Commission Joint Research Centre, Ispra, Italy and Aerobiology Research Unit University of Worcester (NPARU), N. Shiklomanov (NS), National Snow and
Ice Data Centre (NSIDC), O. Arnalds (OA), O. Anisimov (OAV), O. Ehrmann (OE), O. Spaargaren (OS), R.
at the European Commission's representations or delegations. You
1. for the North America, Greenland, Mongolia and the north- Dmitry Konyushkov, Dokuchaev Soil Science Institute, Russian Academy of Agricultural Sciences,
Desyatkin (RD), R. Jones (RJ), R. Sperstad (RS), P. Kuhry (PK), S. Brozek (SB), S. Neuvonen (SN), S. Kobabe
can obtain their contact details on the Internet (http://ec.europa.
western part of Kazakhstan: the Northern and Mid Latitude Moscow, Russia
(SK), T. Scambos NSIDC-University of Colorado Boulder (TS), US Department of Agriculture (USDA), US
eu) or by sending a fax to [phone].
Soil Database (Cryosol Working Group, 2004);
Geological Service EROS Data Center (USGS), V. Romanovsky (VR), V. Rachold (VRD), V. Stolbovoy (VS),
2. for Northern Eurasia and Iceland: the Soil Geographical Galina Mazhitova, Komi Science Centre, Russian Academy of Sciences, Syktyvkar, Russia † World Climate Project (WorldClim), Zhang F. (ZF), Ben2 Wikipedia (BW).
Database of Eurasia (Van Liedekerke et. al. 2004);
Ian McCallum, International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, Laxenburg, Austria † Regrettably, Galina Mazhitova, an expert in cold soils passed away before the completion of this
To find out more about the EU 3. for northern China and the remaining part of Kazakhstan: publication, to which she willingly contributed. An active researcher and an excellent scientist, her
Digital Soil Map of the World (FAO, 1990).
Luca Montanarella, European Commission Joint Research Centre, Ispra, Ispra, Italy contributions to the IPA Cryosol Working Group and the discussions on the Cryosol Reference Group
More information on the European Union is available The map showing the distribution of soil organic carbon originates of WRB will be sorely missed. The Editorial Board sends its deepest condolences to her family and
on the Internet from http://europa.eu from Tarnocai et. al. (2007). Evgeny Naumov, Dokuchaev Soil Science Institute, Russian Academy of Agricultural Sciences, colleagues at the Komi Science Centre.
Moscow, Russia
Europe Direct is a service to help you find answers to your
questions about the European Union. Paul Overduin, Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, Potsdam, Germany The Soil Atlas of the Northern Circumpolar Region is registered as Activity 1210 under
the International Polar Year 2007-2008 Expression of Intent and attached to the IPY
Freephone number (*): Sten Nilsson, International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, Laxenburg, Austria Collaborative Science Programme 373 on ‘Carbon Pools in Permafrost Regions (CAPP)’.
00 800 6 7 8 9 10 11
Âge Nyborg, Norwegian Forest and Landscape Institute, Ås, Norway
(*) Certain mobile telephone operators do not allow access to 00
800 numbers or these calls may be billed. Chien-Lu Ping, University of Alaska Fairbanks, USA
Karl Ritz, National Soil Resources Institute, Cranfield University, UK
Otto Spaargaren, ISRIC - World Soil Information, Wageningen, The Netherlands,
Vladimir Stolbovoy, Institute of Geography, Moscow, Russia
Charles Tarnocai, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Ottawa, Canada
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Soil Atlas of the Northern Circumpolar Region | Preambles Preambles | Soil Atlas of the Northern Circumpolar Region
CONTENTS
Authors and Affiliations 3 Major Soil Types of the Northern Circumpolar Region 46
Acknowledgements 3
Contents 4 Soil maps 52
Preface and Foreword 7 WRB Reference Soil Groups 54
Index to Map Sheets 57
Introduction 8 Overview of the Northern Circumpolar Region 58
Scope of the Atlas 9 Regional Maps 60
Role and Importance of Soil 10 Cold Soils from around the World 116
International Polar Year 12 Geographic Information Systems 117
European Union Research and the Northern Latitudes 13
Northern Soils: A Global Perspective 118
The Northern Environment 14 Carbon Cycle 119
Overview 15 Climate Change 124
Sea Ice and Topography 16
Climate 17 Northern Soils: A Local Perspective 126
Human Influence 19 Alaska 127
Permafrost 20 Canada 128
Land-Ocean Interaction 21 Iceland 129
Greenland 130
Soils in Northern Latitudes 22 Fennoscandia 132
What is Soil? 23 Central Siberia 134
Soils in Cold Climates 24 Construction in the Permafrost Zone 136
Soil Forming Processes 25

Patterned Ground 31
Conclusions 137
Mass Movement 33
Thawing of Ground Ice 34
Additional Information
Soil Organisms in the Polar Regions 35
Glossary 140

Contacts and Bibliography 141
Soil Classification 36
The Joint Research Centre 142
Soil Classification: Grouping soils together 37

World Reference Base 38
Soil Taxonomy 40
Canadian Soil Classification 41
Russian Soil Classification 42
Comparing Soil Classifications 43
Soil Mapping in the North 44
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Soil Atlas of the Northern Circumpolar Region | Preambles Preambles | Soil Atlas of the Northern Circumpolar Region
PREFACE FOREWORD
Understanding how the Arctic environment functions remains one Soil is a unique resource that is often overlooked in discussions on While thinking about the Arctic region, the first thoughts that spring
of the most formidable challenges facing scientists. The role of climate change. Soil is the second largest terrestrial sink of carbon to mind are cold, ice, permafrost, huge resources of oil and gas,
sea ice in the Arctic as one of the key drives of global ocean and dioxide on the planet after the geological pool, containing nearly double gold mining, treeless tundra, polar bears and fascinating indigenous
atmospheric circulation patterns has been well understood for the amount stored by vegetation. Knowledge of soil characteristics in people. The vast majority of us have no idea what soil in the polar
some time. However, within the context of global warming and northern regions is particularly important in our attempts to understand regions might be like. In reality, permafrost-affected soils (known
climate change, there is increasing awareness that the terrestrial the processes and responses to climate change. The thawing of soil as Cryosols, Gelisols, Cryozems in soil classification systems)
environment of the Arctic plays an equally critical role. Generally, in the circumpolar region as a result of global warming will result in predominate in high latitudes. Permafrost-affected soils are one of
most people have limited knowledge, and even less experience, of the thawing of enormous amounts of organic matter that is presently the most widely distributed soil types on Earth, covering over 11
the northern circumpolar region. A few may be able to visualise locked in permanently frozen ground. The decomposition of this million km2 or more than 8% of the planet’s land surface.
the vast boreal forests, extensive tracts of shrubby-mossy tundra trapped organic matter could lead to the release of significant amounts
Permafrost-affected soils occur under a wide range of moisture
or perhaps endless areas of peat bogs. Nevertheless, these of carbon dioxide and, more importantly methane, which in turn will
and physiographic conditions, but all have one common feature:
complex ecosystems are responsible for the fact that the northern increase greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere and further
the association with near-surface permafrost. Low temperature is
circumpolar region contains around 60% of the global soil carbon warming of the climate.
the leading soil-forming factor which also controls the vegetation,
pool, much of it locked up in permanently or seasonally frozen
The European Union is committed to combat the man-made forces populations of organisms, biogeochemical cycles and relief
ground. Understanding the evolution of these soils and associated
driving climate change by reducing emissions and through the formation. The upper portion of the soil profile freezes and thaws
vegetation patterns in relation to climate change, and also their use
sustainable management of natural resources. It is in this context annually (the active layer); the lower portion remains perennially
by society, is fundamental if we wish to assess fully global change
that the Joint Research Centre (JRC), as the European Commission's frozen (the permafrost).
processes.
in-house research body, is carrying out research and collecting
However, the thermal balance of permafrost-affected soils is very
During my visit to the northern islands of Svalbard (76° to 81° information with the aim of improving our understanding of the
delicate and sensitive to any disturbance of the insulating topsoil
North) in 2007, I saw with my own eyes the evidence for significant nature and characteristics of soil in northern latitudes, associated
which, in turn, can have dramatic consequences for local and global
environmental change in this fragile environment. What I witnessed processes and to evaluate the need and effect of EU policies to
environments. At the local scale, permafrost-affected areas can
confirmed to me that climate change is indeed a reality and needs to protect soil resources and the circumpolar environment.
degrade into an aquatic landscape causing terrestrial ecosystems
be tackled sooner rather than later.
I hope that you will find this atlas both enlightening and useful as a to completely collapse. The huge mass of poorly decomposed
For this reason I am pleased to see that the Joint Research Centre scientific reference. organic matter that has accumulated in the permafrost will start to
(JRC) is taking global responsibility on these issues. The JRC has decay and releases greenhouse gases (e.g. CO, CH, NO) into the
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used the recent International Polar Year to address our limited atmosphere: key drivers of global warming.
knowledge of this fascinating and beautiful environment. By
If one takes into account that permafrost-affected soils hold
building on existing cooperation with Member States, supporting
about half of the global soil carbon pool, the catastrophic effects
the European Neighbourhood policy and strengthening ties with
of human-induced degradation of these soils is clear. Soil in the
researchers from North America, the JRC has used science to bring
circumpolar regions regulates several natural and human-induced
people from diverse national and political backgrounds together
ecosystem processes. Our understanding of positive and negative
to address a common goal. While containing a huge amount of
feedbacks in the ‘climate-vegetation-soil-permafrost’ system are of
science-based knowledge, the JRC is carrying out a crucial role in
crucial significance for forecasting the response of this environment
communicating science to the wider society.
to global change.
The presence of ice is a characteristic feature of soil in many northern regions. The portion of the soil that does not
This innovative “Soil Atlas of the Northern Circumpolar Region”
thaw from one year to another is referred to as the permafrost. Above the permafrost layer, soil that thaws during Nowadays, anthropogenic pressures on northern ecosystems and
the spring and summer months then refreezes in the autumn and winter is known as the active layer. The depth of is intended to be a step towards raising public awareness on the
soil resources are rapidly increasing. The Soil Atlas of the Northern
the active layer depends on the local climate, exposure, the characteristics of the soil and the nature of the overlying importance and the key role of soil in northern latitudes. The
vegetation. The picture above from Alaska shows peat overlying an exposed section of a large ice wedge. The height Circumpolar Region is a consolidated international effort by
of the visible ice wedge is approximately three metres. (CP) atlas compiles existing information on different soil types in easily
Roland Schenkel scientists to raise the awareness of the value of soil in high latitudes.
understandable maps covering the entire arctic and subarctic region.
Director-General of the JRC The atlas illustrates vividly the great diversity of circumpolar soils
It is intended primarily for the general public, the educational sectors
and northern landscapes while encouraging the general public and
and policy makers and aims to ‘bridge the gap’ between soil science
governments to develop policies for the protection of these fragile
and public knowledge.
regions.
Recognizing the importance of soil as a non-renewable resource
which provides many critical ecological functions that are crucial
to human existence will support the development of protective
measures that will safeguard soils for current and future
generations.
Europe is exporting pressure on natural resources world-wide and is
I believe that this impressive publication will become a widely-used
facing the consequences of environmental conflict in other parts of the
reference and marks a crucial step towards a better understanding
world. Being a European centre of scientific and technical reference
of the role of soil in northern regions.
covering the entire environmental sciences, the European Commission's
Institute for Environment and Sustainability (IES) uses its expertise to
act globally in co-operation with major international organisations.
It is in this context that the JRC is working actively with world renowned
experts from the international soil science community, many of whom
are partners within the IES’s European Soil Bureau Network. Jerry Brown is investigating the
underside of a 14,000 year old
I am pleased to see that the result of this collaboration has resulted buried ice wedge in Barrow, Alaska.
in this striking, informative and, in the context of the International
Polar Year, timely document.
Jerry Brown
President 2003–2008, International Permafrost Association
Commissioner Potočnik experienced
arctic conditions during his visit to
Svalbard (78° 54' N) in 2007.
Leen Hordijk Vladimir Kotlyakov
IES Director Head, Russian Arctic Programme
Institute of Geography
Soil can preserve information about the environment in which it was formed. The profile above, shows a well preserved relict Janez Potočnik Russian Academy of Science
soil from Latvia. The distorted and cracked reddish horizons are evidence of cryoturbation which is the mixing of soil material EU Commissioner for Research 2004 - 2009 IPY Joint Committee Member
as a result of freezing and thawing cycles. Cryoturbation or frost-churning is a common feature in soils of the northern
circumpolar region. The features present in this soil indicate that at some time in the past, this location has experienced Currently EU Commissioner for Environment
periglacial conditions (extreme cold at the periphery of glacial areas). Today, the location has a much milder climate. The
gray material occupying the top 30 cm of the profile has been strongly influenced by cultivation and the sharp boundary is
the result of ploughing. (EM)
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Soil Atlas of the Northern Circumpolar Region | Preambles Preambles | Soil Atlas of the Northern Circumpolar Region
Introduction
Scope of the Atlas
Soil, composed of minerals, organic material, air and water, performs
a number of key environmental, social and economic services
that are vital to life. Supplying water and nutrients to plants while
at the same time protecting water supplies by storing, buffering
and transforming pollutants. Soil is also an incredible habitat that
provides raw materials, preserves our history and limits floods.
Without soil, the planet as we know it would not function.
However, the importance of soil and the multitude of environmental
services that depend on soil properties are not widely understood
by society at large. Soil scientists are becoming increasingly aware
of the necessity to produce material to raise awareness and
educate the general public, policy makers and other scientists of the
importance and global significance of soil. This is particularly true
of soils in northern latitudes where the impacts of global climate
change would be dramatic on both a local and global perspective.
Following the highly positive response to the publication of the
Soil Atlas of Europe, the European Commission’s Joint Research
Centre initiated a project at the 2006 International Union of Soil
Science Congress in Philadelphia to bring together soil experts
from Europe, Canada, Russia and the United States of America to
produce the first ever SOIL ATLAS OF THE NORTHERN
CIRCUMPOLAR REGION. The atlas, produced under the
auspice of the International Polar Year (IPY), supports the goals of
the European Union’s Thematic Strategy for Soil Protection [1] to
conserve an increasingly threatened natural resource.
Peatlands are a common feature of the northern circumpolar landscape. They are storehouses of
carbon that has accumulated during the past five to eight thousand years. Peatlands contain large
amounts of water in both liquid and ice form and play an important role in water filtration. The above
photograph shows perennially frozen, lichen-covered bogs in the Northwest Territories, Canada, one
of the most common peatland types in northern latitudes. The soil associated with such bogs is a
Cryic Histosol, an organic soil containing a perennially frozen horizon. (GNT)
The effects of the cold climate and ice are very pronounced in the northern circumpolar region. The erosive power of glaciers during the last
Soil in northern latitudes plays a critical role in the well being of
Ice Age has resulted in the formation of characteristic landforms such as the glaciated valley shown in the above photograph of the Auyuittuq
National Park in Baffin Island, Canada. The eroded material was subsequently transported by the glaciers and deposited over large areas as till the planet. A strong relationship exists between soil characteristics
plains or as specific landforms such as the lateral moraine visible as a distinct ridge above the red buildings in this photograph. Water from Key facts about soil
and factors that drive climate change (e.g. carbon storage, methane
the melting glacial ice transported and deposited materials as glaciofluvial sands and gravels. These deposits can provide parent materials
for soils that can be very different in nature from the underlying geological strata, whose characteristics are masked. Note the 1000 m sheer emission, etc.).
granite face of Mount Thor in the middle of photograph. (CT) • A typical sample of soil comprises 45% minerals, 25% water,
The atlas examines not only the impact of possible climate
Active layer change on northern soils and ecosystems but also the potentially 25% air and 5% organic matter. In northern regions, the water
will occur as ice.
substantial impact on global climates from significant changes in the
characteristics of soil that is currently permanently or seasonally • Permanent or perennially frozen soil contains about 50% of the
frozen. The atlas discusses human pressures on soil and explains carbon stored in the world’s soils.
the need to protect soil resources.
• Natural processes can take more than 500 years to form 5 cm
Although the text has been written in English, the atlas shows the of topsoil – in cold environments, this is even slower.
diversity and richness of soil across all continents. If you are interested
• In some temperate ecosystems, 5 tonnes of living organisms
in discovering more specific information about the soil where you
can be found in one hectare of soil – most of which are still not
live, please consult the bibliography at the back of the atlas.
well known.
After reading this atlas, we hope that the content helps you to
Permafrost understand better how the product of the complex interactions • Soil reduces the risk of floods, protects underground water supplies
and can store as much as 3750 tonnes of water per hectare.
between climate, relief, the geological substrate, vegetation, living
organisms, human influences and time leads to the creation of the
Permafrost-affected soils are dominant in the circumpolar region. valuable resource we call soil.
They consist of an active layer, the upper part of the soil which
annually freezes and thaws, and the perennially frozen subsoil or
permafrost which usually contains ice (visible in the lower part of the
photograph). Despite the presence of ice, these soils provide the
rooting media, nutrients and water for the plants that support animal
life in Arctic ecosystems. (CT)
The key objectives of the atlas are to illustrate and inform the
reader of the importance and diversity of soil in the permafrost and
seasonally frozen environments. Most people have no knowledge
of soil in cold environments and do not understand the impact of
the northern environment in a global context. The atlas introduces
the reader to the northern environment by explaining the key
factors that shape soil characteristics in the region. Information is
presented from a polar perspective, allowing comparisons to be
made across international boundaries.
The atlas explains in a non-technical manner how soils are formed,
the principal properties of soils and the relevance of soil to society
and the environment. The richness of soil types that exist in northern
latitudes is described through a dedicated section that illustrates the
relationship between landscape and soil development through the
use of high quality photographs, maps and supporting texts.
At the heart of the atlas is a series of annotated maps that show
the diversity of soil characteristics at a polar and regional scale. The
soil maps are derived from computerised or digital information
collected by a number of organisations to produce a harmonized
soil database covering North America and Eurasia. This database
The harsh territory of northern latitudes, typified by the landscape of the upper photograph, is perceived by the general public as a lifeless and has been elaborated using special computer software known as
barren environment. However, this is incorrect. Where ever possible, life flourishes and appears in spectacularly beautiful forms as evidenced Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to create the maps. The northern circumpolar landscape is very sensitive to disturbance. This
by this colourful Alpine Bearberry (Arctostaphylos alpina) which is dark red during the autumn. The small dark green plants in between are photograph shows the aftermath of pipeline construction in a perennially frozen bog
Crowberry (Empetrum hermaphroditum). The branches on top belong to Dwarf Birch (Betula nana), the smallest birch tree in the world. Light- Special attention is given in the atlas to the impact of cold climate in the Northwest Territories, Canada, which has resulted in serious subsidence and
green lichens are visible on the right side. This stunning mosaic of plants was found on a hillside in the Finnish subarctic. Life in the north ponding. Access to many areas in the north can only be achieved by helicopter. The
appears in the places where soil provides plants with the opportunity to root and nutrients to survive. (GB) on soils and landscapes. Subtle variations in climate, land use and structure at the end of the pond is used for measuring ground temperature. (CT)
parent material lead to significant local and regional variations in
soils and associated properties. Several examples of this variety,
together with the impact on local society, are presented.
8 9
Soil Atlas of the Northern Circumpolar Region | Introduction Introduction | Soil Atlas of the Northern Circumpolar Region
Role and Importance of Soil
Soil protects our buried heritage of
archaeological and historic remains from
Soil is the vital natural habitat that regulates our environment and
damage and depletion.
responds to the pressures imposed upon it. Ignored by the majority
of us, soil carries out a number of key tasks that are essential to our Much of the evidence of human heritage remains buried within
well-being: the soil, awaiting discovery and study by archaeologists and
palaeoecologists (scientists that study past environments and
Soil is the medium that enables us to grow our ecosystems). The degree of preservation of such remains depends
very much on the local soil characteristics and conditions.
food, natural fibre, timber and support wildlife
Waterlogged, very acid or permafrost-affected soils with low levels
One of the most widely recognised functions of soil is material in of oxygen, have very little microbial activity and provides an ideal
which plants grow. In turn, many of these plants are used by people environment for preserving organic remains. Any disturbance of
directly as food (i.e. crops), as feed for animals or for fibre (energy). these environments, such as the drainage of wetlands or ploughing,
Generally, soil in northern latitudes has severe limitations for cropping. changes the conditions and leads to rapid decay and loss of the
Most of the soils are shallow, too wet and lacking in nutrients. The material. Archaeologists use these historical artefacts and the layers
extreme climate, coupled with the strong soil limitations, means that in which they are preserved, to reconstruct the communities that
biological activity and the availability of essential nutrients in the soil produced them and the environments in which they lived. But to
are relatively low; not ideal conditions for conventional agriculture! do this, the soil layers must remain undisturbed.
In cold northern regions, the most productive agricultural soils are Sand is used throughout the world in the construction industry. This sand deposit is in western Siberia, Russia. (AL)
Pollen grains of various plant species are often preserved in
to be found along the major river valleys and estuaries. These areas
soil, especially peat. Analysis of the type and amount of pollen
have the warmest temperature regime and often lack permafrost. In
contained in a soil profile will provide a strong indication of the Soil provides the foundation upon which Soil as a regulator of the biogeochemical cycles
northern Eurasia, the majority of rivers flow from south to north.
vegetation patterns over time, from which a record of past climate we construct our buildings, roads and other
River water brings a huge amount of heat from the south to the frigid
may be inferred. In northern regions, analysis of pollen records Soil plays a crucial role in a number of life-sustaining natural
northern regions. This effect allows the tree line to reach 72° 30’ N infrastructures.
from peat deposits has shown that, as the glaciers retreated at the biological and chemical cycles. Carbon, nitrogen and a range of
in the Khatanga River valley in north-central Siberia whereas the tree
line in Northern America is below 70° N. Tish oen alye raiarol upnhdot 3o0g rcamph, isnhcoluwdsin tgh e9 c4o cnmflu oefn scneo owf. t Thhee D aevltear aRgivee mr winiitmh uthme tTeamnpaneara Rtuivreer i inn JAanlausakray (i6s4 -°223"5°C2 'w Ni t1h4 a5n° 4a3ve"7ra' gWe) .m Aanxnimuaulm pr deucirpinitga tJiuolny end of the last Ice Age, bare land was initially colonised by lichen In addition to providing the support for the vast majority of essential nutrients are continuously recycled between the soil and
of +20°C. The geometric red and green patterns that are visible on the image are agricultural areas which in the northern circumpolar region and mosses, followed by a succession of grasses, dwarf shrubs, human infrastructure, soil provides a range of raw materials such plants, geological deposits, ground water and the atmosphere. The
are generally found in river valleys where the climate is a little warmer and cultivation can occur during the spring and summer months. In pine and birch trees. as clay, sands, minerals and peat. Clay is used for making bricks intensity of these biogeochemical exchanges (fluxes) varies from
the past, frozen rivers such as the Tanana were used as major transportation routes throughout the Arctic. (CP)
Soil is a natural filter and regulator of water flow for construction, pottery items (e.g. earthenware) and as the first place to place and is regulated by soil characteristics. Details of the
In Siberia, the remains of several specimens of mammoths (Elephas
writing medium (clay tablets). Due to its impermeable properties, considerable role played by northern soils in the global carbon cycle
primigenius) have been found intact, preserved with their flesh and
One of the key functions of soil is to act as a natural purification system. hair still remaining. It is believed that these animals became trapped clay is used as a barrier to stop water seeping away which is why can be found on the page 119.
Over time, soil has the ability to filter, absorb and transform substances. in swamps at the end of the last Ice Age and at the onset of winter, many ponds, canals and landfill sites are lined with clay.
Chemical compounds that are deposited on or in the soil, together became frozen and incorporated into the permafrost. They have Sand and gravel deposits, laid down by rivers fed by glaciers melting
with excess agro-chemicals, can be trapped by soil, thus preventing become exposed by the melting of the ice. at the end of the last Ice Age, are very common through the
them from reaching clear water supplies. Additionally, contaminates northern circumpolar region. Both types of material are heavily
can be degraded or otherwise made unavailable to plants and animals used in the construction industry as aggregates while sand is the
through a range of biogeochemical processes. However, high levels of principal ingredient in glass making and used in sand-blasting to
toxins or severe soil degrading can disrupt these processes leading to a clean buildings and in sandbags to stop flooding! Like sand, gravel
loss of this function. has countless uses. For example, in Russia, more roads have gravel
surfaces than concrete or asphalt.
In addition, soil is a key regulator of water flow. Soil can absorb much
of the rain that falls on it, but the amount varies according to texture, In many countries, such as Scotland, Ireland and Finland, peat is
structure, organic matter content and vegetation cover. Well structured used as a fuel. The peat is cut into rectangular blocks and stacked
loamy soil under grass or woodland acts like a sponge and can absorb to remove moisture. When dry, the peat is burnt for heating and
as much as 40 % of its volume as water. Soil also acts like a tap, turning cooking. Over very long periods of time (i.e several million years),
water flow on and off by storing and releasing water for plants when peat can turn into lignite, a soft brown coal.
needed. Urban planners now realise that the sealing of soil by materials As a result of the cold climate, biomass production and the productivity of northern soils Highly magnified pollen grains of grass (left) and pine Peat is also dug in to soil by gardeners to improve structure and
such as concrete and asphalt, together with compaction of the subsoil, are low. The photograph shows natural reindeer pasture in Finland where animals must (right). The analysis of the pollen record in soil can enhance soil moisture retention. Although, increasingly, people
is a significant factor in flood control. Any reduction in the capacity of cover considerable distances to feed. (GB) provide a strong indication of past climates. (NPARU)
have become aware of the environmental impact of peat cuttings
soil infiltration will lead to increased overland flow, the rapid transfer of
and are looking for alternative, ‘peat-friendly’ composts.
rainfall to river channels, flooding and erosion.
Soil is the environmental engine room where
An illustration of nutrient circulation in the tundra. Atmospheric CO2 is
fixed in the plants through photosynthesis (Cp). Litter falls to the ground
dead plant and animal tissues and other
Soil and water and enters the decomposition cycle (D) where it is transformed into soil
organic matter are decomposed to provide organic matter and nutrients by the soil microbial biomass (MO). Carbon
is continuously lost to the atmosphere as CO2 through microbial and plant
nutrients for the growth of new life. Infiltration is the downward entry of water into the soil through Peat and “a wee dram” respiration (Cr), made available directly for plant photosynthesis or added
the soil surface, essentially the boundary between the atmosphere tsoy sttheem a tomf othspe hseoriilc o pro toalk (eCnO-2u).p Nbuyt prileannttss a(rNeu c)i.r cMuilcartoedb iwali tahcitni vtihtye mis ilcimroibteiadl
and the ground. The ability of water to enter the soil is related to by low temperatures. Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and nutrients (LE)
A wee dram is a popular expression in Scotland to denote a small
The decay of organic matter is driven by soil organisms, the total its porosity (the amount of space within the soil) and permeability can be transported to adjacent systems. (AMAP)
glass of whisky! Peat fuelled fires dry the barley used in the whisky
weight of which below a temperate grassland can exceed 5 tonnes (the ability of liquids to flow through the soil). In turn, these factors
making process. This procedure is responsible for giving Scottish Soil: its vital role
per hectare, equalling or exceeding the above ground biomass. are governed by the texture and structure of the soil, the initial soil
whisky a distinctive smoky or ‘peaty’ taste.
A few grams of such soil contains billions of bacteria, hundreds moisture content, soil composition and the swelling of clay minerals
of kilometres of fungal hyphae, tens of thousands of protozoa, that can cause cracks in the soil to close. Water that has infiltrated The soil functions described on these pages are vital to life on Earth,
thousands of nematodes, several hundred insects, arachnids and the soil can later be released through evapotranspiration, subsurface but not all soil types can carry them out to the same extent and
worms, and hundreds of meters of plant roots. flow or as surface runoff. some are far more susceptible to the collapse of a function when
The biota turns the soil into a biological engine. The biota is involved Percolation is the movement of water though the soil by gravity and The remains of a frozen baby mammoth found stresses are placed on them. A clear understanding of the functional
in the permafrost of Siberia. The calf is thought capability and potential of different soil types is thus vital for
capillary forces. Water that is in contact with air in the soil is called
in most of the key soil functions, driving fundamental nutrient cycling to have died around 10,000 years ago. (BW)
vadose water. Where the voids (pores) in the soil are full of water, planning the sustainable development of indigenous communities in
processes, regulating plant communities, degrading pollutants and
this saturated zone is called groundwater. Groundwater can move in the North and our environmental resources.
helping to stabilize soil structure. Soil organisms also represent a What is pH?
both vertical and horizontal directions. The boundary that separates
crucially important biotechnological resource, with many species of
the vadose and the saturation zones is called the water table.
bacteria and actinomycetes providing sources of antibiotics.
When soil scientists describe soil they often refer to it as being acid or
A spring is a location where the water table reaches the surface.
alkaline or having a certain pH value.
Groundwater discharges from soil to streams and rivers form the
base flow during dry periods. The pH index is a number used to express the concentration of
hydrogen ions in a solution. While the scale is from 0 to 14, soils
Peat is an organic soil that accumulates is wetlands and is a
characteristic soil of the northern circumpolar region. Peat acts typically fall between pH3 to pH11, with a neutral soil having a pH of 7.
as a ‘natural sponge’ that regulates river flows: providing constant Alkaline soils will range from pH8 to pH11 (strongly alkaline) while acid
flows in times of drought and alleviating flooding following excess
soils will range from pH6 to pH2 (strongly acid).
rainfall. The photograph shows a section through a deep peat
bog in Ireland. The high moisture content of the soil can be seen
clearly in the photograph, note the groundwater spring where the Life in the cold of Antarctica Acidity Neutral Alkalinity
fern grows. The white, spindly elements in the foreground are
the roots of woody shrubs that once grew on the peat. Draining
peatlands increases the rate of runoff, leads to erosion and, Despite the public perception of millions of penguins inhabiting the 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
eventually, to major changes in the landscape. (AJ) coastal areas of Antarctica, a soil microarthropod called Nanorchestes
(a creature similar to the mite shown in the photograph to the left) is
Soil biodiversity reflects the very diverse mix of living organisms in the soil. Our believed to be the dominant living species in this cold continent!
knowledge of the diversity of life under our feet is still at a basic level. The picture e.g. Podzols Humid regions Arid regions Saline Traditional cutting of peat for fuel in the north of Scotland. Cutting peat This photograph shows the traditional dress of Sami people,
shows a mite which lives in sandy soils on the Norwegian coast. This mite species soils by hand is a slow procedure which allowed the vegetation to regenerate who live in northern Sweden, Norway, Finland and the Kola
has a body size of less than 1 mm. Mites inhabit litter layers and air-filled soil Range for most mineral soils over time. After cutting, the peat would be stacked to dry. There is Peninsula, Russia. The Sami are one of the several groups of
a growing realisation that peat acts as a natural store of carbon. The indigenous populations of the northern circumpolar region.
pores. Mites consume plant and animal residues, soil fungi and bacteria or are
management of peatlands is becoming an important consideration in Northern people depend heavily on local natural resources that
carnivorous. Microarthopods regulate the decomposition rate of organic matter,
the debate on global warming and climate change. (RJ) are mostly wild pastures for reindeer breeding. (FND)
affect nutrient cycling and play an important part in soil fertility. (DR)
10 11
Soil Atlas of the Northern Circumpolar Region | Introduction Introduction | Soil Atlas of the Northern Circumpolar Region
International Polar Year European Union Research and the
Northern Latitudes
What is the IPY?
One of the incentives to produce the Northern Circumpolar Soil
Atlas was the International Polar Year initiative.
The International Polar Year (IPY) is a large scientific programme
that focuses on the Arctic and the Antarctic from March 2007 to
March 2009. The rather loose definition of ‘year’ is required in
order to encompass two full annual cycles in both the Arctic and
the Antarctic. IPY uses six scientific themes to provide a framework for associated
research activities. These are:
The International Polar Year is organized through the International
Council for Science (ICSU) and the World Meteorological
1. Status: to determine the present environmental status of the
Organization (WMO). The current IPY is actually the fourth polar
polar regions;
year, following those of 1882-3, 1932-3 and 1957-8.
The IPY represents one of the most ambitious coordinated 2. Change: to quantify and understand past and present natural In November 2006, the leaders of the European Union (EU), together
international science programmes ever attempted. It includes with Iceland, Norway and Russia, adopted a ‘Northern dimension’ policy
environmental and social change in the polar regions and to
research and observations in both the Arctic and Antarctic polar (Canada and the United States are currently observers). The ‘Northern
INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL FOR SCIENCE improve projections of future change;
regions and explores the strong links these regions have with the dimension’ addresses the specific challenges and opportunities arising
in northern latitudes and aims to strengthen dialogue and cooperation
rest of the globe. Founded in 1931, ICSU is a non-governmental organization
3. Global linkages: to advance understanding on all scales of between the EU, the northern countries of the European Economic
representing national scientific bodies and international scientific
This IPY has initiated a new era in polar science and has involved a wide the links and interactions between polar regions and the rest of Area and the Russian Federation.
unions from all over the world.
range of research disciplines, from geophysics and ecology to social the globe, and of the processes controlling these;
science and economics. The IPY is a truly international endeavour The mission of the ICSU is to strengthen international science for the Several key priority themes for dialogue and cooperation under the
benefit of society. A key part of this is to plan and coordinate research, ‘Northern dimension’ have been identified, these including environmental
with over 60 countries participating in more than 200 projects. 4. New frontiers: to investigate the frontiers of science in the protection and the sustainable use of natural resources, linked to the
particularly for topics that require collaboration between scientists in
Importantly, the IPY aims to educate the public whilst training the different disciplines and in different parts of the world. polar regions; visibility of regional and local cultural identity and heritage.
next generation of polar engineers, and scientists. Therefore, over
http://www.icsu.org/ The ‘Northern dimension’ also provides a frame of reference for
50 of the projects deal with education and outreach. 5. Vantage point: to use the unique vantage point of the polar
intensified transatlantic cooperation in matters concerning the northern
regions to develop and enhance observatories from the interior
regions of the world. Among the top priorities are increased cooperation
of the Earth to the sun and the cosmos beyond; in research, educational programmes and capacity building.
Despite developing under marginal climatic conditions, northern ecosystems
Why study the polar regions? can be extremely rich and diverse. The striking image above is a false-
Within this context, many European researchers and EU-funded colour image of the 30,000 km2 delta of the River Lena as captured by the
The poles are recognized as sensitive barometers of environmental 6. The human dimension: to investigate the cultural, historical research projects are carrying out very important work in northern Enhanced Thematic Mapper sensor on the Landsat 7 satellite on February
change. Polar science is crucial to understanding our planet and our and social processes that shapes the sustainability of circumpolar regions. The shared enthusiasm and sense of urgency in the face of 27, 2000. The dark, circular features are lakes and the purple colour
impact on it. The poles are also exceptional archives of what the human societies and to identify their unique contributions to global warming is leading to an increasing number of these European itnod dicifafteerse nbta vreeg seutarftaiocne sp. a tTtehren sv.a Trihoeu sd egltrae eenx taenndd sb mroowrne tthoanne s1 0co0r krems pino ntdo
Earth was like in the past, and offer a unique vantage point for many global cultural diversity and citizenship. programmes and to a more coordinated approach to European polar the Laptev Sea and is about 400 km wide. The delta is frozen tundra for
terrestrial and cosmic phenomena. In particular, the polar regions are research as a whole. about 7 months of the year, but the summer warmth transforms the region
into a lush wetland for the next few months. The delta is home to a large
especially important for the following reasons: IPY projects aim to attract, engage and develop a new generation of concentration of birds and is an important fish spawning site. Part of the
Through the EU Framework Research Programmes, scientists have area is protected as the Lena Delta Wildlife Reserve. (USGS)
researchers and raise the awareness, interest and understanding of
WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION made significant advances in understanding the environment of northern
• They are presently changing faster than any other regions of polar residents, educators, students, the general public and decision regions, especially the polar zone, and the role it plays in climate change.
the Earth, with regional and global implications for societies, Since 1951, the WMO has been the United Nations’ authoritative makers worldwide. IPY projects will collect a broad-ranging set of These include the stability of the thermohaline circulation, studies of The EU and Soil Protection
The Arctic
economies and ecosystems. This change is particularly evident voice on weather, climate and water. It facilitates cooperation in samples, data and information which will be made available to an the carbon cycle and impacts of climate change on biodiversity and
through the widespread shrinking of snow and ice. the establishment of networks for meteorological, climatological, unprecedented degree. IPY 2007–2008 aims to leave a legacy of ecosystems. However, there are still many questions to be answered Soil degradation is accelerating across the EU, with negative effects on
about the consequences of human activities
• Processes in polar regions have a profound influence on the global hydrological and geophysical observations all over the globe. It also enhanced observational systems, facilities and infrastructure. The The word Arctic comes from the Greek, arktos, which means bear. human health, ecosystems and climate change – and on our economic
and the challenges that northern regions are now facing. In addition,
environment, and particularly on the weather and climate system. facilitates data exchange, and assists technology transfer, training International Polar Year 2007–2008 should significantly advance our effective environmental policies must be built on sound scientific This is due to the location of the constellation of Ursa Major or the prosperity and quality of life. To reverse this trend, the European
At the same time, the polar environment is impacted by processes and research. The WMO fosters cooperation between the National ability to meet the major science challenges of the polar regions knowledge. ‘Great Bear’, above the Arctic region. Commission has developed a strategy to set a common framework
at lower latitudes. Examples include the formation of the ozone Meteorological and Hydrological Services of its 188 Members and and generate a rich legacy, notably in a new understanding of polar to preserve, protect and restore soil from threats such as soil erosion,
hole and the accumulation of pollutants in the Arctic environment. furthers the application of meteorology to aviation, shipping, agriculture, processes and their global linkages at this critical time — for it In this context, the International Polar Year and the EU’s current the loss of soil organic matter, compaction, salinisation, landslides,
water issues and the mitigation of the impacts of natural disasters. is becoming ever clearer that we humans have to recognize and Seventh Framework Programme (FP7) respond precisely to the need contamination and sealing wherever they occur, or threaten to occur.
• The Arctic is home to more than 4 million people, and these respond to the planetary limits of our behaviour. The polar regions for more and better knowledge. FP7 addresses major unanswered
http://www.wmo.ch/
communities face changes in their natural environment and in scientific questions to advance our understanding of the Earth system’s Soil can be considered a non-renewable resource, as it takes
provide a litmus test and the insight to help us do so.
their natural resources and food systems — changes that are, functioning and changes, as well as optimum mitigation and adaptation hundreds of years to produce a few centimetres of soil. Yet soil
for the most part, of a rapidity and magnitude beyond recent strategies. is rapidly degrading in many places across the EU exacerbated by
experience or traditional knowledge. human activity, such as certain agricultural and forestry practices,
Research in northern latitudes faces three basic challenges: cost
• Within the polar regions lie important scientific challenges yet to (expenses incurred in carrying out fieldwork can be prohibitive), industrial activities, tourism or urban development. An estimated
be investigated and unique vantage points for science. The regions providing the interdisciplinary linkages (a more holistic approach 115 million hectares or 12% of Europe’s total land area are subject
beneath the polar ice sheets and under the ice-covered oceans offers stronger potentials for new discoveries) and a general lack of to water erosion, and a further 42 million hectares by wind erosion.
remain largely unknown. Many of the new scientific frontiers in the information (there are still significant gaps in our understanding of the Approximately 3.5 million sites within the EU could be contaminated.
polar regions are at the intersection of traditional scientific disciplines. processes occurring in northern regions). About 45% of European soils have low organic matter content,
principally in southern Europe but also in other Member States.
The EU’s FP7 aims to overcome these challenges by providing
Much of the text on this page has been adapted from the IPY brochure “The scope of science for instruments and funding mechanisms that bring together scientists and Soil is a resource of common interest to the EU and failure to
the International Polar Year 2007–2008”.
researchers in a critical mass to target research on the monitoring of the protect it at EU level will undermine sustainability and long term
carbon cycle (including adaptation and migration measures), modelling
For more information on the International Polar Year 2007-2009 and competitiveness of Europe. Different EU policies already contribute
environmental processes on global, regional and local levels to assess
associated activities, visit the web site: to soil protection but no coherent policy exists. Only nine Member
impacts and critical thresholds, changes in atmospheric composition
States have specific legislation on soil protection, often covering a
http://www.ipy.org and natural disasters.
specific threat, in particular soil contamination.
Soil degradation has strong impacts on other areas of common
Soils in the north are often affected by freezing and thawing cycles that interest to the EU, such as water supply, human health, climate
results in the deformation of the terrain (e.g. the hummocky surface
change, nature and biodiversity protection, and food security. Soil
in the photograph). This deformation can be current and/or occurred
in the past reflecting cooler climates. This soil profile from the Finnish protection is not only a national concern because soil contamination
subarctic shows a thick peat topsoil overlying a bleached horizon. Peat in one Member State can have trans-boundary effects and cause
cover is common in northern regions. The cool climate together with
a widespread shallow water table slows the decay and encourages the pollution and economic burdens on neighbouring states. Also,
accumulation of poorly decomposed vegetation remains. (GB) different ways of dealing with soil problems may distort competition
For additional information on the results of recent EU funded for economic operators within the internal market.
research projects on the polar environment and climate The EU Soil Strategy will boost research on soil and raise public
change, please visit: The European Commission awareness and ensure public participation in the preparation and review
http://ec.europa.eu/research/environment/ of the programmes of measures adopted by the Member States.
The European Commission is the executive branch of the European
pdf/Polar_catalogue_final.pdf
Union, responsible for proposing legislation, implementing decisions,
For further information on environmental research under the upholding treaties and the general day-to-day running of the Union. The
Commission operates with 27 Commissioners, one per member state. For more information on the EU’s Thematic Strategy for
EU’s FP7, please visit:
The President is currently José Manuel Barroso. The ‘Commission’ Soil Protection, please visit:
The arctic treeline is the northernmost limit of tree growth. As this limit Global change is a particular concern for the northern environment. Many people are worried that increasing
is approached, trees become shorter and stunted until they simply stop temperatures in the Arctic may cause ice sheets to melt and large amounts of fresh water to enter the North http://cordis.europa.eu/fp7/cooperation/ also refers to the body of 25,000 civil servants who are divided into http://ec.europa.eu/environment/soil/index_en.htm
growing. This photograph shows a small 'tree island' near the Canadian Atlantic. There is a risk that global ocean currents may be disrupted and sea-level may rise leading to the flooding environment_en.html departments called Directorates-General, based mostly in Brussels.
Arctic town of Inuvik (68° N), some 200 km north of the Arctic Circle. North of low-lying coastal areas. The warming of the climate will cause dramatic changes in vegetation patterns and
of this location, shrubby tundra predominates. The Mackenzie River can be natural habitats. The subsequent environmental change may be devastating for local inhabitants. The dramatic
seen in the background. (GB) landscape in the above photograph was taken on Baffin Island at a latitude of 68° N in the Canadian Arctic. (CT)
12 13
Soil Atlas of the Northern Circumpolar Region | Introduction Introduction | Soil Atlas of the Northern Circumpolar Region
The Northern Environment
Overview
Introduction Vegetation Indigenous people
This section of the atlas describes the environmental conditions in the The northern regions are one of the last and most extensive The northern circumpolar region is populated by numerous indigenous
northern circumpolar area. continuous wilderness areas left on Earth (see page 19). In the peoples such as Iñupiaq, Yup'ik Inuit, Alutiq or Aleuts, Athapaskans
For the purposes of this atlas, the northern circumpolar region is defined northernmost areas plants are at their metabolic limits and small (Alaska); Inuit (Canada and Greenland); Sami (Fennoscandinavia);
as the region surrounding the North Pole above a latitude of 50° North. differences in the total amount of summer warmth make large Yakuts, Chukchi, Nenets (Siberia). These nations have learned
This area includes the Arctic Ocean (which covers the North Pole) and differences in the amount of energy available for growth and to adapt to some of the harshest conditions on Earth and scarce
surrounding countries of North America and Eurasia. reproduction. Low summer temperatures cause the size, abundance, resources. This makes them vulnerable to environmental changes
productivity and variety of plants to decrease. and industrial interventions. Recent discoveries of oil and minerals in
The northern circumpolar region includes the High Arctic, Low Arctic,
Arctic areas have had a severe impact on the traditional lifestyles of
subarctic and boreal regions (see map below). These regions are In the coldest parts of the Arctic, much of the ground is bare with
indigenous people while not necessarily bringing them prosperity.
defined on the basis of a number of landscape, climate and ecological only a few plants such as lichens and mosses, along with a few
criteria. The 10°C July isotherm or the treeline marks the limit of scattered grasses, can survive. To the south, a treeless landscape
forest to the north. The Arctic Circle, the approximate limit of the with dwarf shrubs, sedges, grasses, herbs, lichens and mosses forms
midnight sun and the polar night, is located at 66° 33’ North. the tundra zone.
Alaska
Where the climate is less severe, the tundra is replaced by vast
(United States)
expanses of forest dominated predominantly by coniferous trees 481 054
such as pine, larch, spruce and fir. This ecosystem is known as
boreal forest or by the Turkic term, taiga. Where the climate is
milder, the boreal forest can also contain broadleaf trees notably
birch, aspen, willow and rowan (see page 19).
Canada Russia
Despite relatively low rainfall, a combination of low 92 985 1 999 711
evapotranspiration levels, gently undulating landscape and shallow
groundwater table result in the widespread occurrence of
wetlands. The associated bog vegetation (e.g. mosses, sedges)
leads to extensive areas of peat formation.
Greenland Norway
South of the boreal forests, increasing aridity leads to the 55 419 379 461 Finland
200 677
predominance of wide-ranging grasslands which are called steppes Iceland
266 783
in northern Eurasia and prairie in North America.
Sweden
Fauna Faeroe 263 735
Islands
43 700
Where conditions for life are marginal, ecosystems tend to be
fragile, slow to change and slow to recover from disruptions or
damage. Nevertheless, the region is home to a wide range of Number of inhabitants
In northern landscapes, there exists a harmony between the rugged terrain and the harsh climate. This stunning photograph of Summit Lake on Baffin Island living creatures, some unique to this environment. Herbivores on 2 000 000
Indigenous population
in the Canadian Arctic shows a typical U-shaped glaciated valley with steep, stony sides and a flat, often waterlogged bottom. Small hanging glaciers are still
the tundra include the arctic hare, lemming, muskox, caribou and
visible in the depressions on the slopes. However, the large glacier responsible for the main valley in this landscape has long since retreated. The stones in
the foreground illustrate that the major weathering process in the region is physical disintegration of solid rock by freezing and thawing cycles. (GB) reindeer. They are preyed on by the arctic fox, wolves and bears. 500 000 Non-indigenous population
300 000
High Arctic Subarctic The polar bear, only found in northern latitudes, prefers to hunt for 150 000 AMAP boundary
50 000
marine life from the ice. There are many birds and marine species
Low Arctic Treeline
endemic to the colder regions (e.g. seals, walrus, whales).
The northern circumpolar region is populated by numerous
The map illustrates the major ecological zones of the circumpolar region.
indigenous peoples. The exploitation of natural resources often
The treeline indicates the northernmost boundary of the occurrence of
Natural resources takes over vast expanses of territories leading to the displacement
trees. The boreal region occurs south of the subarctic. (AMAP [2])
of indigenous populations by non-indigenous people. (AMAP [2])
The Arctic Ocean The northern circumpolar region includes sizeable natural resources
of oil, gas, minerals, and forests. Many analysts believe that
The Arctic Ocean, at the centre of the northern circumpolar region, the Arctic Ocean contains as much as a quarter of
cEiomsouc iaclrtlhaiusotseplni iaine w,ke sNmo ahro2 al,rdr so'st shula ig gsAlhhemtlmnylayg el ctlelrhiaris crctogau ef,al arnGar drt robh eaasuehnsnnia dnltla lhona4ewdn5 d,,se 0i aszc0nteo0 d vo o kescfmree stva henaaernn. a dUTla rlhniaseeir tags e ueAdor rfirSsc oalttauaircnotn deudOssne.. cddTTe 1hhba4neey ttbItnhhhaceeelar setnweaac rposeeipr nslidogon 'gfuhs ruoutcmhfne esdaw niisshg c ppliocoruhebvt esatceirlon enguedc lnpe doer tegriolgsr aseeyun axrdtmpYel yluo agk aaroitknls t eertre. stoheu rMct eM2sc0FK,3a 0iinr3Pblfetaruyndk1hso5e0 B°a yWAL(UBA.aSrS.rAoK.w)A ChBeSruinge kSatrcaihti 180°WIsralanngdel Arctic Circle 150° E 10322CfRhterskiy Range Yakuts
Arctic Ocean is connected to the Pacific Ocean by the Bering Strait on the northern environment.
and to the Atlantic Ocean through the Greenland Sea. The region is particularly East Siberian Boronuk C
e
T(aTisnsunhhferdleeoer o rwApseuaa rfnlrcgifendrteoieii ctn1zmy gOe6 is)ssc, ea detla ohuasnween.u etimsdox ubl tafeeelrun rgctt eo tolouy ffar cetwiodloahvunreicgcsreeh eid n dv ra teibevrvyiemea rpssps eo seaerar aaainctstdieuoo rntnelhai,m rlalhoynietu deaagsd vhs ytaoh oliufenrut ei ittctsfyhleho el wemw vya eeetltelatsosrr. sotwoufi s ldctlehifpgeetr ihobdaulebins itdttuoacrt obstv.haeenr c aeb raaonsfi do nA C 12VGLBI0israceel°kaataoerntrdiaInuvik BIsalPanankrdsrByeaSuefaort International Dateline SeNaewIs lSa12inb4d6e1sfrtLiaanptev SeaTiksi S1U2i0bL°enaSSntral Siberi
Queen EliIzsalabnedths Arctic Ocean Taym e I
Climate N Islands yr
North M(1a9g9n7e)tic Pole SeZveemrnlyaaya Penin r A
Tsohlear r eragdioiant iios nc,h ainrtaecnteseri zceodld b dy uar ihnagr sah loclnimg awtein wteirth a lnodw a a cmoooul nsthso orft SAouth9a0m°pton 75° Ellesmere Island North Pole 75°sula Noril'skia 90° eW
stAtheuvmemesrpmeae gleraeran, t dauwslrl i en(os tofee fwer a hpptieacpgmhre ocpsxo e1imrm7ab atautinnerdeely st 1 -o87a )p0r.er° oClvo hidwaes aab nendee ngca ratenivc eof arhdlel eatdto bi na- 4lSa0inb°ceCer ioa()na. t DAIslBaFnaodsxBaifefnin Island BaffiMneBravyille NThaurlees StPreaairty LandMorrKisa Jpe sup 17122ftFranz (JRouss.e)fs Land Ka5p20 Z9fetlaKnyaara P nairebiS ts
Sceunmtrmael Ar stieam). p Aernantuuarel sp rceacnip ritiaseti otno is1 5ge°Cne r(oalrly h loigwhe wr iitnh cmoonsttin aernetaasl Iqaluit Bay NordostrundingenNordaustlandet Novaya Sea Vorkuta nial
rtheece fiovrinmg olefs ssn tohwan. In5 0th0e m pmola. rM reugciho nosf, stthreo npgr ewciinpditsa tfiroenq uceonmtley ss tiinr Da6vi0s° Strait UpeGrnaRvikEE(DNenL.)AND GreSeenaland Sv(aNlobr.a)rdBarentZsemlya 605°304ftOb'
usCnpoo aswsntfoaawll l!c lilmyinagte os nar eth me ogdroeruantde dt ob yc orecaetaen iacn in ifllluuesinocne so, fe xcpoenrtiiennucoinugs brador (NGUOUDKTHÅB) Gunnbjørn Fjeld B(Beaj(øNrr onIsrø.l)aynad) NorSdekaapp MKuormlgaunysekv Ural Moun
ADnu rainegri atlh vei eswu mofm peart,t ewranteedr fgrroomun md,e lotfintegn itcyep fiiclalsl othf en ocrrathcekrsn. laInn dthseca spuebss. e Fqruoeznetn w girnoteurn,d t hcera wckaste irn itnh eth wei ncrtearc kdsu efr etoe ztehse, ceoxnptarancdtsio ann odf etnhlea rsgoeils. gcoenldeerra lalyn dw darrimere rin tteemriopre araretuarse.s and heavier precipitation than the Sftea AmmassDa1li1ek02n1fmt ark 1S21t3r6aftit JanN( MNooary.r)ewn Iselagndian TromAsYø N FINL30° E3862ft Arkhangel's
ttdhheeep rmcersoascsikaosinc.s o wOf hvdeiicfrhf et icrmeannet , e ptihtahitset erf rrbneese zfalinondog d-cetohdlao iwunir ntshg te hc sayutc mlcea mnfoe brrm e( tshs eeae bndl iusineti ntahcrteeia vaseb aloabvnoedv psec)h aooptreo c.g or naMtpaihcirn oo s-f htAoalplaloosgwkra ap. pe haCytey n isstr oariell s(pbparorontwss inob fla ert hefaoes rp ).to h lFeyo gdromenvese rla ocrpream cueksnsu taa lorleyf ATFKLaarvApeNTIC 30° W ArcItCic CEirLcleAND S0°ea NORW SWEDE AND TgCehiroicsgu rmappmhoailcapar l feRsaehtguoirowenNss. i ozfhT tnthhhieyee Nodramtshahejerodnr
filled with sediments that are rich in organic matter to form interlocking ridges. Patterned ground is explained in more detail on page 31. (JB) REYKJAVÍ line indicates the Arctic Circle at a
latitude of 66° 33’ N. (LJ)
14 15
Soil Atlas of the Northern Circumpolar Region | The Northern Environment The Northern Environment | Soil Atlas of the Northern Circumpolar Region
Sea Ice 50°N Climate
160°W 170°W 180° 170°E 160°E
150°W 150°E
Afaftrohno armdz nm eam Anjaoe nnsrlyett asc ay rhwwecataairitrcathse c s rtt(e hemtaerh iu iaspclttteoi icf- ll wyaooerahf a tsirtcseh hiaoce secn oAa) tn nrahs cnem.t d iIcsno u t rOhtrehef caee eci caAeaesn ir ol icysifst bi gtctherh,e enesa eo okprmc arueelelpays ens amen.n ac udT eci ch dhoeer fti cf hitsca ieecanak w fl eoaiacrsrye tm. , s 120°W 130°W 140°W 7600°°NN 140°E 130°E 120°E Sea IcSMeea pErctxehmt 2eb0en0r7t 2007 Temp<e -r2a0ture (°C) 140°W 150°W 160°W 170°W 180°5600°°NN 170°E 160°E 150°E 140°E
Aofr ctthice siceea riecfele kctese p8s0 %th oe f ptohela rs urnelgigiohnt sb accoko li.n t oT hspea cberi.g Wht hseunr fasecea 110°W 110°E -20 – -15 130°W 130°E
ice melts during the summer, the dark ocean surface absorbs 90% 80°N -15 – -10
of the sunlight. The oceans heat up, and Arctic temperatures rise 100°W 100°E -10 – -5 120°W 70°N 120°E
further. Cracks in the ice allow the exchange of heat and water
vapour from the ocean to the atmosphere. These cracks may affect -5 – 0
local cloud cover and initiate precipitation. [3]. 90°W 90°E 110°W 110°E
0 – 5
The seasonal sea ice cycle affects both biological habitats and 80°N
human activities. Polar bears, seals and other mammals hunt, feed, 80°W 80°E 5 –10 100°W 100°E
and breed on the ice while ships operating in the Arctic must work > 10
80°N
during periods when sea ice is least extensive. 70°W 70°E
90°W 90°E
60°W 70°N This60 °Emap shows the fluctuating extent of sea ice in
the Arctic Ocean. The white area indicates the average 80°W 80°E
50°W 50°Emtypaxiciamlluym re aecxhteens ti tso vaenrn uthael mpaexriiomdu 2m0 e0x0t e–n t2 i0n0 M4.a rSceha aincde
the minimum extent in September. Recent measurements 80°N
40°W 40°E from satellite passive microwave data show a significant 70°W 70°E
60°N shrinking of the ice in the Arctic, as depicted by the
30°W 30°E lmiminitims iunm 2,0 w0e7l lw bheelroew t hthee s ulomnmg-etre remxt eanvte rraegaec.h eTdh ea craeucoserds
20°W 10°W 0° 10°E 20°E bweahrminidn gt hisi sa kderaym faacttioc r.c (hNaSnIgDeC [a4r]e) complex but global 60°W 70°N 60°E
50°N
50°W 50°E
By late winter, sea ice in the Arctic covers around 15 million km2, its
The map shows the patterns of mean annual air temperature for the circumpolar
thickness and extent are governed by weather and climate. region. Temperatures below zero surround the Pole with lowest values (purple 40°W 40°E
and blue colours) in Northern Siberia, Greenland and Northern Canada and 60°N
Due to the long nights and frequent cloud cover, radar sensors
Alaska. The warming effect of the Gulf Stream in Europe, particularly on the W
on satellites provide the best means of observing the extent and western coast of Scandinavia, is very evident. The influence of the Atlantic 30° 30°E
vthaeri aebxitleitny to off sseeaa iiccee. inS attheel liAter cdtiact ah ahsa dveec rreevaeseadle db yt haabto, usti n3c.e6 %19 p7e9r, Icebergs OPAalceceuiaftinica One xcItesealnannd cdsa sna. s aV lfesarork bhaeose yWnan eossbktse, erinrnv eSndibo ierntrh ita-h.ce e wAn terssaitml mSiliaabrreg rwiinaas r imosf i nrNegog raetrfhdf eAecdmt efbrryoic mam aatnhndey 20°W 10°W 0° 10°E 20°E
decade. In recent years, satellite data have indicated an even more as being the coldest place on the planet with a January average of -50°C. The 50°N
Everybody knows the story of what happened when the Titanic lowest temperature recorded there in 1892 was -69.8°C. (WorldClim [6,7])
dramatic reduction in regional ice cover. In September 2007, sea collided with an iceberg and that 90% of the volume of an iceberg is
ice in the Arctic reached a record minimum of 4.28 million square underwater. However, because they are composed of ice originating
kilometres, nearly 40 % below the long-term average. The Arctic from glaciers, icebergs are not considered sea ice. Most of the
The picture shows broken sea ice or pack ice at the sea ice receded so much that the fabled Northwest Passage opened icebergs in the North Atlantic come from glaciers in Greenland.
foot of a large iceberg. Records show a persistent
decline in Arctic Sea ice over the last 50 years. (TS) completely for the first time in human memory.
50°N
Topography 160°W 170°W 180°50°N 170°E 160°E 150°W 160°W 170°W 180° 170°E 160°E 150°E
130°W 140°W 150°W 60°N 150°E 140°E 130°E 130°W 140°W 60°N 140°E 130°E
120°W 70°N 120°E 120°W 70°N 120°E
110°W 110°E 110°W 110°E
80°N 80°N
100°W 100°E 100°W 100°E
90°W 90°E
Elevation (m) 90°W 90°E
< 0 80°W 80°E
80°W 80°E
0 - 200
80°N
Mofoteunn tpaeinresn ninia ltlhye c onvoerrtehde rbny iccierc aunmdp sonlaorw .r e(CgTio)n are 200 - 400 70°W 70°E 80°N
400 - 1000 70°W 70°E
1000 - 1500 60°W 60°E
1500 - 2000 50°W 70°N 50°E 60°W 70°N 60°E Precipitation (mm)
2000 - 3000 <250
> 3000 40°W 60°N 40°E 50°W 50°E 250 - 500
30°W 20°W 10°W 0° 10°E 20°E 30°E 40°W 30°W 60°N 30°E 40°E 570500 -- 7150000
Talhtiitsu mdea psu schho awss p tlhaein tso pwohgicrhap ahrey goer nvearraialltyio fnlast ionr egleenvatltyio unn odfu tlahtein lagn adn dsu trefnadce t oin b me ecotrmesp aobs5eo0°dNv eo sf eloaa-mle,v efllu. v Tiahl eo rd agrlakc giarle denep coosloitus.r Trehper leigsehnt-t garreeeans coof lloouwr 20°W 10°W 0° 10°E 20°E >1000
indicates the high plains where the landscape begins to show evidence of erosion on steeper slopes. The yellow colour highlights upland regions 50°N
which in some places give way to mountains (orange-brown).
The highest elevations in the region (dark blue) are found in Greenland where Gunnbjørn Fjeld, at a height of 3,700 metres above sea-level, is the The map shows the mean annual precipitation (millimetres of rainfall and the water equivalent of snowfall). The heaviest precipitation occurs
highest mountain north of the Arctic circle. Gunnbjørn Fjeld is a rocky peak protruding through glacial ice which is referred as a ‘nunatak’, an Inuit in the coastal regions of the British Isles, Scandinavia, Greenland, Nova Scotia in Canada and the western coast of North America, bounded by
word that is applied to similar features across the world. the Rocky Mountains. This precipitation is caused when saturated air masses that formed over the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans move over land
Many coastal lands in the circumpolar region have very low elevations and in some cases, such as the deltas of large rivers such as the Lena, Ob and and lose their water. As for temperature, the influences of the oceans can extend as far as western Siberia. The Far East is affected by summer
Mackenzie, are vast wetlands. These areas provide important natural habitats for numerous bird species that breed during the summer months. To monsoons, heavy seasonal rain. Parts of the Canadian Rocky Mountains receive over 3500 mm of rain in a year. A striking feature is the low
Nunataks are rocky peaks which protrude through escape the harsh winter, the birds migrate to milder, southern regions. These areas are very sensitive to any rise in sea-level due to the melting of level of precipitation in the Arctic regions (yellow). Areas with less than 250 mm of annual precipitation are referred to as semi-arid. Some
glacial ice. (CT) ice caps in high latitudes. parts of the Arctic are classified as ‘Polar Deserts’ where annual precipitation is less than 150 mm. For these very dry areas, salt accumulation
This map was derived from the Space Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) using a specially modified radar system that obtained elevation data in the landscape can be observed. (WorldClim [6,7])
on a near-global scale at a resolution of 90 m. (WorldClim [5])
16 17
Soil Atlas of the Northern Circumpolar Region | The Northern Environment The Northern Environment | Soil Atlas of the Northern Circumpolar Region