Table Of Content

SOIL AND WATER CONTAMINATION BALKEMA – Proceedings and Monographs in Engineering, Water and Earth Sciences Soil and Water Contamination from molecular to catchment scale Marcel van der Perk Department of Physical Geography, Utrecht University, The Netherlands LONDON / LEIDEN / NEW YORK / PHILADELPHIA / SINGAPORE This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2007. “To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.” Front cover: M.C. Escher’s “Puddle” © 2006 The M.C. Escher Company B.V. – The Netherlands. All rights reserved. Copyright © 2006 Taylor & Francis Group plc, London, UK All rights reserved. No part of this publication or the information contained herein may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, by photocopying, recording or otherwise, without written prior permission from the publisher. Although all care is taken to ensure the integrity and quality of this publication and the information herein, no responsibility is assumed by the publishers nor the author for any damage to property or persons as a result of operation or use of this publication and/or the information contained herein. Published by: Taylor & Francis/Balkema P.O. Box 447, 2300 AK Leiden, The Netherlands e-mail: [email protected] www.balkema.nl, www.tandf.co.uk, www.crcpress.com ISBN 0-203-96357-1 Master e-book ISBN ISBN10: 0-415-40943-8 ISBN 13: 978-0-415-40943-8 Contents PREFACE XI PART I AN INTRODUCTION TO SOIL AND WATER CONTAMINATION 1 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION 3 1.1 Historical perspective 3 1.2 Environmental pollution 4 1.3 Environmental pollutants 5 1.3.1 Classification of pollutants 5 1.3.2 Background concentrations 6 1.3.3 Anthropogenic sources 8 1.4 Ecological impacts 8 1.5 Spatial and temporal variability and the concept of scale 11 1.6 Outline and rationale of this book 13 Exercises 14 2 BASIC ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY 15 2.1 Introduction 15 2.2 Units of analysis 15 2.3 Activity 17 2.4 Background thermodynamics 19 2.5 Phases and phase transitions 21 2.5.1 Phases 21 2.5.2 Thermodynamic considerations on phase transitions 21 2.5.3 Partition coefficient 22 2.5.4 Partitioning between dissolved phase and adsorbed phase 23 2.5.5 Fugacity 25 2.6 Chemical equilibrium and kinetics 28 2.6.1 Equilibrium 28 2.6.2 Kinetics 31 2.7 Dissolution–precipitation reactions 33 2.8 Complexation 34 2.9 Acid–base reactions 36 2.9.1 Introduction 36 2.9.2 Acids 36 2.9.3 Bases 37 2.9.4 Buffering 38 2.10 Redox reactions 40 2.10.1 Introduction 40 2.10.2 Oxidation state 40 VI Soil and Water Contamination 2.10.3 Redox potential 41 2.10.4 Redox reactions and pe 44 2.10.5 pH–Eh diagrams 45 2.11 Further reading on basic chemistry 45 Exercises 47 3 ENVIRONMENTAL COMPARTMENTS 51 3.1 Introduction 51 3.2 Soil 52 3.2.1 Definition of soil 52 3.2.2 Sources of soil pollution 54 3.2.3 Soil water 55 3.2.4 Soil erosion 56 3.2.5 Physico-chemical conditions in soil 57 3.3 Groundwater 59 3.3.1 Definition of groundwater 59 3.3.2 Sources of groundwater pollution 60 3.3.3 Physico-chemical conditions in groundwater 61 3.4 Surface water 62 3.4.1 Definition of surface water 62 3.4.2 Bed sediments 62 3.4.3 Sources of surface water pollution 63 3.4.4 Physico-chemical conditions in surface water 65 3.5 Further reading on soils, groundwater, and surface water 67 Exercises 68 PART II SOURCES, ROLE, AND BEHAVIOUR OF SUBSTANCES IN SOIL AND WATER 69 4 SOLID PHASE CONSTITUENTS 71 4.1 Introduction 71 4.2 Inorganic components 72 4.2.1 Composition and formation 72 4.2.2 Aluminium and iron oxides/hydroxides 74 4.2.3 Clay minerals 74 4.3 Organic components 79 4.3.1 Composition and formation 79 4.3.2 Interaction with the aqueous phase 82 4.3.3 Interaction with mineral surfaces 83 4.3.4 Decomposition of organic matter 84 4.4 Sorption by soils and sediments 86 Exercises 87 5 MAJOR DISSOLVED PHASE CONSTITUENTS 89 5.1 Introduction 89 5.2 Sodium 92 5.3 Potassium 94 5.4 Calcium 95 5.5 Magnesium 96 5.6 Iron 97 5.7 Manganese 99 Contents VII 5.8 Aluminium 101 5.9 Chloride 103 5.10 Inorganic carbon 105 5.11 Sulphate and sulphide 108 Exercises 110 6 NUTRIENTS 113 6.1 Introduction 113 6.2 Nitrogen 115 6.2.1 Environmental role and occurrence of nitrogen 115 6.2.2 Nitrogen cycle 116 6.2.3 External sources and sinks 118 6.3 Phosphorus 119 6.3.1 Environmental role and occurrence of phosphorus 119 6.3.2 Phosphorus cycle 121 6.3.3 External sources and sinks 122 Exercises 123 7 HEAVY METALS 125 7.1 Introduction 125 7.2 Zinc 128 7.3 Copper 129 7.4 Lead 130 7.5 Cadmium 131 7.6 Nickel 132 7.7 Chromium 132 7.8 Mercury 133 7.9 Arsenic 135 Exercises 136 8 RADIONUCLIDES 139 8.1 Introduction 139 8.2 Natural radionuclides 143 8.2.1 Terrestrial radionuclides 143 8.2.2 Cosmogenic radionuclides 146 8.3 Man-made radionuclides 148 8.3.1 Production and releases 148 8.3.2 Accidental releases 151 8.3.3 Nuclear weapons 152 8.3.4 Environmental behaviour and effects of selected man-made radionuclides 153 Exercises 154 9 ORGANIC POLLUTANTS 157 9.1 Introduction 157 9.2 Petroleum and derivatives 161 9.3 Monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 162 9.4 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 163 9.5 Chlorinated hydrocarbons 165 9.5.1 Aliphatic chlorinated hydrocarbons 165 9.5.2 Hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) 166 9.5.3 Hexachlorobenzene (HCB) 167 VIII Soil and Water Contamination 9.5.4 Dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane (DDT) 167 9.5.5 Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) 168 9.6 Dioxins 168 Exercises 169 PART III TRANSPORT PROCESSES OF SUBSTANCES IN SOIL AND WATER 171 10 SYSTEMS AND MODELS 173 10.1 A systems approach 173 10.2 The role of mathematical models 177 10.3 Classification of mathematical models 180 Exercises 181 11 SUBSTANCE TRANSPORT 183 11.1 Mass balance 183 11.2 Advection 188 11.2.1 Advection equation 188 11.2.2 Load calculation and mixing 195 11.3 Diffusion and dispersion 196 11.3.1 Molecular diffusion 196 11.3.2 Turbulent diffusion and mechanical dispersion 196 11.3.3 Longitudinal dispersion 200 11.3.4 Transverse dispersion 205 11.3.5 Numerical dispersion 207 11.4 Multi-fluid flow 210 Exercises 214 12 SEDIMENT TRANSPORT AND DEPOSITION 217 12.1 Introduction 217 12.2 Transport equation 217 12.3 Bottom shear stress 218 12.4 Sediment deposition 222 12.5 Sediment erosion 225 12.6 Long-term soil erosion and deposition 226 Exercises 229 13 CHEMICAL TRANSFORMATION 231 13.1 Introduction 231 13.2 Sorption equilibrium and kinetics 232 13.3 Biological production and degradation 239 Exercises 245 14 GAS EXCHANGE 249 14.1 Henry’s law 249 14.2 Thin film model 250 14.3 Reaeration 253 14.4 Gas exchange controlled on the water side 255 14.5 Gas exchange controlled on the air side 256 14.6 Gas exchange in the subsurface environment 257 Exercises 259 Contents IX 15 MODEL CALIBRATION AND VALIDATION 261 15.1 Introduction 261 15.2 Model performance criteria 265 15.3 Considerations affecting model choice 270 Exercises 271 PART IV PATTERNS OF SUBSTANCES IN SOIL AND WATER 273 16 PATTERNS IN THE SOIL AND IN THE VADOSE ZONE 275 16.1 Introduction 275 16.2 Variation due to clay and organic matter content 276 16.3 Lateral variation 279 16.3.1 Introduction 279 16.3.2 Effects of fertiliser and pesticide application 280 16.3.3 Effects of atmospheric deposition 282 16.3.4 Effects of soil erosion and deposition 283 16.4 Vertical variation 289 16.4.1 Introduction 289 16.4.2 Effects of leaching 290 16.4.3 Effects of contamination history 292 Exercises 295 17 PATTERNS IN GROUNDWATER 297 17.1 Introduction 297 17.2 Hydrological systems analysis 297 17.3 Hydrochemical systems analysis 300 17.4 Effects of lateral variation in contaminant inputs 302 17.5 Effects of temporal variation in contaminant inputs 304 17.6 Effects of dispersion 306 17.7 Effects of retardation 309 17.8 Effects of acid–base reactions 311 17.9 Effects of redox reactions 313 Exercises 320 18 PATTERNS IN SURFACE WATER 321 18.1 Introduction 321 18.2 Spatial variation in river water composition 322 18.2.1 Effects of diffuse sources 322 18.2.2 Effects of point sources 324 18.3 Temporal variation in river water composition 327 18.3.1 Short-term dynamics 327 18.3.2 Hysteresis response of dissolved concentrations to changes in discharge 327 18.3.3 Release of old water 330 18.3.4 Sediment dynamics 331 18.3.5 Concentration rating curves 332 18.3.6 Significance of hydrological events for substance transport 336 18.3.7 Seasonal dynamics of nutrient concentrations 336 18.3.8 Long-term dynamics 337 18.4 Variation in lake water composition 341 18.4.1 Role of lakes in catchment sediment and nutrient budgets 341 18.5.2 Lateral variation 342