SOCIAL WORK

548 Pages·2010·5.84 MB·English

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF
SOCIAL WORK
\
20TH EDITION
EDITORIAL BOARD

EDITORS IN CHIEF
Terry Mizrahi, Ph.D., MSW
Professor of Social Wark Hunter
College
Larry E. Davis, Ph.D., MSW Dean
of Social Wark University of
Pittsburgh
AREA EDITORS
Paula Allen-Meares, University of Michigan Darlyne
Bailey, University of Minnesota Diana M. DiNitto,
University of Texas at Austin Cynthia Franklin, University
of Texas at Austin Charles D. Garvin, University of
Michigan Lorraine Gutierrez, University of Michigan
Jan L. Hagen, University at Albany, State University of New York
Yeheskel Hasenfeld, University of California, Los Angeles Shanti K.
Khinduka, Washington University in St. Louis Ruth McRoy, University
of Texas at Austin
J ames Midgley, University of California, Berkeley John
G. Orme, University of Tennessee Enola Proctor,
Washingt~n University in St. Louis Frederic G. Reamer,
Rhode Island College Michael So sin, University of
Chicago
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF
SOCIAL WORK
20TH
EDITION
Terry Mizrahi
Larry E. Davis
Editors in Chief
VOLUME 3
J-R
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NASW PRESS
OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS
2008
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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF
SOCIAL WORK
20TH EDITION

JAILS. See Criminal Justice: Corrections. obligatory moral behaviors and acts of loving kindness.
Contemporary Jewish communal service emerges from a
religious and social tradition rooted in Scripture, the
Talmud, and rabbinic dicta. Jewish religious practice is
JAPANESE. See Asian Americans: Japanese.
defined by mitzvoth, which literally mean command ments.
The commandments are broadly separated into those that
are largely ritual and ecclesiastical and those that define a
JEWISH COMMUNAL SERVICES vast array of social relations, including marriage, economic
pursuits, child rearing, and care for the widow, the orphan,
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ABSTRACT: The form and character of communal ser- the poor, and the stranger. Thus, Judaism views personal
vices provided under Jewish auspices have been shaped by charity as motivated by the value of mutual responsibility
religious teachings and traditions. Righteousness is and part of a systematic network of social obligati ons,
achieved by fulfilling obligations to those less fortunate or rather than a voluntary act of kindness (Bernstein, 1965).
in need. Acts of tzedakah, translated as justice, are the As an example, the Bible enjoins that crops forgotten in
hallmark of Jewish philanthropy. The evolution, role, the field or inadvertently left standing after the harvest
functions, and organizational structure of services are remain for poor people. In addition, a corner of a farmer's
reflective of these obligations. While changing funding field must be purposefully left uncut so that needy people
patterns and managed care have blurred the sectarian nature may glean in private. Such prescriptions stand side by side
of many communal agencies, these agenci es remain as key with those that require employers to pay workers
elements in the voluntary social services network of this punctually and those that restrict creditors in their demands
country. epistemologies and to collaboOverall, two themes have
Overall, two themes have remained constant over the
years in both religious teaching and practice: First, one who
KEY WORDS: Charity; Jewish; Nonprofit; Sectarian;
extends a hand for assistance must never be turned away,
Mutual Aid
and second, in helping someone else, the benefactor
follows in the paths of righteousness and s anctity that
Foundation From Scripture and Teachings characterize the Lord. In sum, although numerous Hebrew
The form and character of communal serVices provided terms connote philanthropy and voluntary service, tzeda-
under Jewish auspices have been shaped by religious kah, the most popular term used, derives from a word that is
teachings and tradition developed over a 4,OOO- year more accurately. translated as justice or righteous giving.
period. In the Jewish tradition righteousness is achieved by This epitomizes the classic Jewish attitude to ward such an
fulfilling obligations to those less fortunate or in need. The undertaking (Gelman & Schnall, 1997).
evolution, role, functions, and organizational structure of
services are reflective of these obligations, and also of
historic models of Jewish communal organi zation. Past and Current History Fundamental
Preservation and continuity of Jewish ideals and the Jewish sources regarding personal obligations to needy people
people are the centerpiece of refugee assis tance programs; gave rise. to discussions of the organization and structure of
formal and informal education, family services; vocational community services. This became especially important as
programs; services for the frail and elderly; and training for largely autonomous Jewish communities emerged, first as
Jewish communal professionals. While changing funding part of a centralized monarchy in ancient Israel and later as
patterns and managed care have blurred the sectarian nature Jews were dispersed throughout the Near East, North
of many Jewish communal agencies, these agencies remain Africa, and Europe. By Talmudic times (that is, during the
as key elements in the voluntary social services network of first centuries of the Common Era), Jewish communities
this country (Gelman & Schnall, 1997). Judaism not merely were required to maintain systems of assessment and
posited a noble vision of a free, just, and compassionate collection, with detailed prescriptions for the oversight and
society, but also translated this vision in detailed legislation accountability of those who were trustees and
of administrators.
1
2 JEWISH COMMUNAL SERVICES
dignity and self-respect of those who were re- have incomes that fall below 150 percent of the federal
cipients of communal beneficence were given primacy. poverty standard. The majority of these individuals are
Thus, the highest form of tzedakah, according to Mai- older women and children. One-third of those in need who
monides (1965), a l Zth- century Jewish philosopher and are considered to be of working age work full or part-time.
jurist, is that which provides poor people with the More than half of working-age individuals have no
wherewithal to become productive and self-s ufficient (for education beyond the high school level (Metropolitan New
example, extending loans or providing assistance in finding York Coordinating Council on Jewish Poverty, 2004;
ajob or beginning a business). Second is a system of Rapfogel, 2004).
completely anonymous philanthropy in which nei ther
recipient nor donor can be directly identified. This
approach reduces embarrassment on one side and arro- The Role of Communal Service
gance on the other. Maimonides suggested that the goal is Agencies in the United States According to
best facilitated through a central kupah in which the process Steinitz (1995, 1996), Jewish communal agencies through
of donation is separated from, disbursement. much of their history have focused on four primary goals:
Given the heavy emphasis in Jewish texts on reli gious a. delivering basic social services to indigent members
education as equivalent to all other mitzvoth combined, it is of the J~,wish community,
no surprise to find that public education also was an area of b. resettling refugees and helping Americanize both the
special concern to early Jewish commu nities. Jewish immigrant and the second generations,
sources further established the communal obligation to c. responding to international crises,
create local structures of go vernance and to provide for
d. fighting anti-Semitism.
refugee aid, hospitality for wayfarers, funeral and
bereavement assistance, and mediation of civil and
domestic disputes (Schnall, 1995). The schol arly literature
However, beginning in the 1960s, changing demo-
of the period recorded active debates about public
graphics, growing identification with the developing state
participation and the scope of the fran chise in communal
of Israel, newly established governmental funding streams
decisions, including in the choice of leadership. This
designed to expand service options and opportu nities, and
dynamic continues to inform much of what has been
interest in specialized therapeutic interven tions delivered
established in the United States over the past 350 years
by highly trained professional personnel led to a reordering
(Elazar, 1995).
of organizational priorities. The over view provided by
Although rooted in Scripture, th e pattern of Jewish
Berger (1980) is enlightening:
welfare organizations is distinctively different frO"irliltiat'
These changes not only resulted in the dramatic
of other sectarian groups. For the most part, Jewish social
expansion of social services provided under Jewish aus-
services have developed apart from the synago gue.
pices (Blum & Naparstek, 1987; Gibelman, 1995; Smith &
Although the beginning of American Jewish phi lanthropy
Lipsky, 1993) but also led to a real blurring of what had
took place at the synagogue, the sudden and massive influx
been the historical distinction between' sectarian an d
of Jewish immigrants created needs for which a synagogue
nonsectarian agencies (Levine, 1998; Ortiz, 1995). Jewish
alone could not provide (Reid & Stimpson, 1987). Jewish
agencies currently exhibit a great degree of autonomy from
immigrants formed literary societies for recreation and
religious authority and are largely nonsectarian in client
"landsmanchaften" for mutual aid and self- help. These
intake. Many Jewish agencies, particularly in large
organizations facilitated the acculturation of emigres to
metropolitan areas, have high percentages of non Jewish
their new land and assisted in caring for those in need,
clients and other service users.
facilitating their independence and self-sufficiency.
The 1990 and 2001 population surveys produced
It is estimated that 5.2 million Jews currently live in the
disturbing findings of an American Jewish community
United States. Just as their numbers have increased since
with high intermarriage rates and growing levels of
the original 23 Jews debarked in New Amsterdam in 1654
alienation and disengagement, particularl y among the
with special permission from the Dutch West India
younger population, from Jewish tradition and commit-
Company, so too has there been growth in the number of
ments. The organized Jewish community, through its
social organizations that provide for heal th, welfare,
federation network and a growing number of private
recreational, and spiritual needs (Berger, 1980).
foundations, has mobilized to address these continuity
Poverty is still a very real problem among Jews.
concerns through a dramatic shift in funding priorities
In New York City, the city with the largest Jewish
toward Jewish identity building and education services
population in the United States, 226,000 individuals
(Edelsberg, 2004, 2005; Goldman, 2005; Schwager, 2005).
JEWISH COMMUNAL SERVlCES 3
The Jewish Federations are endangered. Since 1880, HIAS has been the worldwide
The Jewish federations are the central fundraising orga- arm of the American Jewish community for rescue,
nizations within individual Jewish communities, raising relocation, family reunification, and resettlement of
and distributing hundreds of millions of dollars to local refugees and other migrants. Its mission is derived from the
community agencies, Israel , and Jewish communities biblical teaching "Kol Yisrael Arevim Ze Bazeh," which
around the world. The 155 Jewish community federa tions means "all Jews are responsible, one for the other."
in the United States are autonomous, voluntary During 2004 HIAS resettled 41,445 immigrants ,
organizations that engage in or provide a series of functions including 7,565 Jewish refugees from the former Soviet
for communal affiliates that include the following: Union, into communities throughout the United States
• Joint or coordinated annual fundraising (HIAS, 2004). Its 2004 budget exceeded $13 million, with
• Endowment development, planned giving, special more than 53% of its funding coming from con tracts with
and emergency campaigns the U.S. government (HIAS, 2006). Since the mid-1970s ,
• Allocations and central budgeting when barriers to immigration were eased in the former
• Centralized research and community planning nowledge. Family centered care, child welfare teams,
• Leadership development and training services rkforce issues, and
• Initiation of new sen>ices ental health, substancement of Jews from the former Soviet
Union to serving a more nonsectarian client base using
money from Jewish funders committed to the Jewish
Federations developed in the United States beginning in
resettlement tradition. During fiscal 2006 HIAS resettled
Boston in 1895 and currently exist in communities where
1,754 refugees in the United States, 713 from the Forme r
there is a significant Jewish presence. The United Jewish
Soviet Union, 698 from Iran, 241 from Syria, and 102 from
Communities, created in 1999 as a suc cessor organization
Southeast Asia (HIAS, 2007).
to the United Jewish Appeal, Coun cil of Jewish
Federations, and the United Israel Appeal, represents and The American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee
was formed by a merger of three agencies in 1914 and
serves the local Jewish federations of the United States and
Canada on issues of public social policy, financial resource serves as the overseas arm of the American Jewish
development, community building, and J ewish community, sponsoring programs of relief, rescue, re-
engagement across North Amer ica, Israel, and newal, and helping Israel address its most urgent social
needs. Over the course of its history it has assisted
internationally.
hundreds of thousands of jews and non-Jews in Europe,
Jewish agencies increasingly apply for, receive, and use
Israel, the former Soviet Union, the Middle East, Asia, and
public funding for the benefit of the Jewish and general
Africa through humanitarian and development efforts. Its
communities. Although one can debate the nature of the
goal is to develop systematic solutions to social problems
change created by the acceptance of public funds by these
through research and development, pilot demonstration
historically sectarian agencies, it is clear that the number of
projects, and strategic interven tions working
units of services delivered to the Jewish community, as
collaboratively with international organizations such as the
well as to the general com munity, has increased
UN, the World Bank, and U.S. Agency for International
dramatically as a result of the acceptance of this support
Development. For example The Joint provides basic life
(Solomon, 2005).
sustaining services, includ ing food assistance, medicine,
On average, federation network agencies receive more
fuel, and social contact, to the large elderly Jewish
than 40% of their total budget from federal, state, and local
population in the former Soviet Union. It is also involved in
government sources. UJA-Federation of New York, which
a variety of community- based activities in the former
conducts the largest federation campaign in the world,
Soviet Union ranging from educa tional programs for
raised mote than $388 million from its annual campaign ,
children, college students, and adults, community outreach
planned giving, endowments, and other sources in 2006
and family camps, to leadership training seminars in Jewish
(UJA Federation of New York, 2007).
academic studies in universities (jdc.org).
Communal Services
The following example s of Jewish communal services
agencies are presented to provide a sense of the mission,
scope, and program involvement of such agencies. Community Centers
Jewish community centers (JCC) and Young Men's and
International and Refugee Services Women's Hebrew Associations provide cultural, re-
The primary mission of the Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society creational, educational, and social opportunities for
(HIAS) is to help Jews whose lives and freedom members of the community. JCCs today are committed
4 JEWISH COMMUNAL SERVICES
to supporting Jewish cultural activities, Jewish identity- services organizations in the nation. It serves over 65,000 New
building initiatives, and enabling Jews of all ages and Yorkers annually from all religious, ethnic, and economic
backgrounds to engage in the joys of Jewish living. Although backgrounds through 185 comprehensive community- based
under Jewish auspices, these community based centers and programs, residential facilities, and day treatment centers
their affiliated camps serve popula tions that are ethnically (jbfcs.org). This agency has taken a leadership role in
diverse, fall along a continuum of religious observance, and responding to the managed care environment and provides a
vary by age from early childhood to senior citizens. highly sophisticated training program for its professional and
Local JCCs are affiliated nationally with the JCC line staff.
Association, the successor organization to the Jewish Welfare
Board, which came into being during World War I to provide ospitals and Services for Elderly People
welfare, morale, and religious service to men and women in The development of sectarian hospitals, nursing homes, and
the armed forces. JCC Association st rives to strengthen specialized geriatric utilities in American commu nities is a
Jewish life in North America through research and tradition that dates back to the 19th century. Homes for elderly
publications, human resources development, conferences, people have been the primary source of service to Jewish older
<3irect service and consultation, and special continent- wide people since the early 20th century. Since the 1930s, Jewish
programming. JCCs across the country are known for their geriatric facilities and JFS agencies have been innovative in
early childhood programs, health and wellness centers, teen providing a range of community-based services. According to
programming, senior adult services, adult Jewish learning, Shore (1995/1996); these innovations include the provision of
special needs programming, camping programs, and cultural meals to shut- ins; independent and assisted living
enrichment activities. The Association has more than 350 arrangements; and health services and the introduction of
affiliates (JCCA, 2006). Through its Jewish Chaplains outpatient physical, occupational, and speech thera pies. The
Council (formerly the Jewish Welfare Board), the Association Jewish community has also been instrumental in the
serves Jews in the armed force of the United States .. development of hospice- based care for patients in the final
stages of terminal illness.
In addition to serving a humanitarian purpose, these
facilities were established to provide kosher food for patients
or residents who observe traditional dietary laws. Although
Family Services these facilities have historically received support from
Jewish family service (JFS) agencies have been a mainstay of benefactors, self-pay and third party sources, and federation
the Jewish communal network since the 19th century. There subsidies, they are pre dominantly dependent on government
are more than 140 agencies affiliated nationally with the Medicare and Medicaid reimbursement for the services they
Association of Jewish Family and Children's Agencies, which provide. The services of these organizations are available to
employ trained soci al workers and other professional all people, regardless of race, ethnicity, or religious
personnel who specialize in clinical work and case identification.
management (Association of Jewish Family and Children's
Agencies [AJFCA], 2006). JFS agencies are recognized for
their clinical expertise and innovative approaches to curr ent
challenging mental health issues (Abramson, 1994). Many of Vocational Services
these agencies provide adop tion services, foster care, group Jewish vocational services (JVS) agencies were founded by
homes for people with developmental disabilities, and federations to address specific communal needs in the areas of
geriatric services under contract with government agencies.' employment. "Founded on the concept of 'parnosah,' JVS
Services address individual and family concerns, . including agencies had an obligation to help Jews secure a source of
the mental health needs of recent immigrants. JFS agencies income so they could raise a family, remain independent, live
provide the Jewish and non-Jewish communities with high- in dignity, and continue to be a vital and productive part of the
quality mental health services sanctioned by the Jewish Jewish community" (Miller, 1995/1996, p. 88). They
community (Abramson, 1994). In 2003, Je wish Family and supplement the efforts of public employment services, with
Children's Services affiliates spent more than $530 million to special assistance being provided to ph ysically and mentally
assist a broad range of children, adults, and the elderly handicapped individuals and to recent emigres who are in need
(AJFCA, 2006). of retraining. Services include vocational testing; indivi dual
The New York- based Jewish Board of Family and and group counseling; job placement; educational support;
Children's Services, a UJA-Federation network agency, is one training programs for people with developmental d isabilities,
of the largest nonprofit mental health and social mental illness, and dual diagnoses; and