Social Mobility in Etruria -

15 Pages·2013·0.16 MB·English

by  Gérard Capdeville

Etruscan Studies
Journal of the Etruscan Foundation
Volume 9 Article 15
2002
Social Mobility in Etruria
Gérard Capdeville
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Capdeville, Gérard (2002) "Social Mobility in Etruria,"Etruscan Studies: Vol. 9 , Article 15.
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Social Mobility in Etruria
by Gérard Capdeville
H(astia).Ecnatnei.Atiuce.lautnic
([CIE,3088 =] TLE,550 = Cl1.1568)
By“socialmobility”Imeanhereachangeofsocialclass,whichisnoteasytodis-
cern in Etruria because we do not have much general information on the struc-
tureofEtruscansociety.Themostimportantchange,andthemostobvious,isthe
transition from servile to free status, hence the importance of freedmen for our subject.
Thewordfor“freedman”iswellknown,aswehavecirca175inscriptions:itislautuni,
lautni(rec.lavtni),fem.lautni(cid:15)a,lautnita(rec.lavtnita).Itsmeaningisattestedbytwo
bilingualEtrusco-Latininscriptions(CIE,1288Clusium;3692Perugia),whichtestifyto
theequivalenceoflautnitotheLatinlibertus.
Equivalencedoesnotmeanidentityofstatus,especiallyduringtheindependent
citiesperiod.Atleasttwoquestionsarise.Whatistherelationshipbetweenthelautniand
hisformermaster?Whatisthepositionofthelautniasregardscitizenship?Theonomastic,
forwhichwehaveaveryrichcorpusofepitaphs,providesuswithpartoftheanswer.
Astothefirstpoint,wenoticethatthenameoftheformermasterisoften,butnot
always, present, and above all that the freedman does not receive, as would happen in
Rome,hismaster’spraenomenandgentilicium:hesimplyretainsthesinglenamehebore,
whenhewasaslave;onlyaftertheannexationofEtruriawillRomanlawapplyinthismatter
too.Wecansaythattheremainingtiesbetweenthefreedmanandhisformermasterareless
strongthaninRome;thelautni-statusitselfseemstoprevailoverthepersonalties.
It follows that the freedman remains without citizenship, whereas his son will
be automatically entitled to it. A sure pointer to this can be seen in the expression of his
identity,whichhasthesamestructureasfornativecitizens,withthetakingofapraenomen
andtheuseofthesinglenameofthefatherasagentilicium;inthefollowinggenerationthe
patronymic(praenomenofthefather,oftenshortened)appearsaswellas,sometimes,the
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matronymic(gentiliciumofthemother);fromthelatterproceedsthecognomen.
Thereforeastudyofthegentiliciaandthecognominacanfollowthesocialevo-
lutionofthesuccessivemembersofafamily:thesinglenamecanbecomeagentilicium,
then a cognomen. The examples we shall give have been taken from the three most
important collections of epitaphs, from the cities of Clusium, Perugia and Volterra and
areforthemostpart“recent.”
Among family names, it is important to recognise those which are likely to
reveal a servile origin; most of them are identical with single names borne by slaves:
names transcribed from the Greek, like Ti(cid:30)ile ((cid:4)(cid:16)´(cid:30)(cid:16)(cid:18)(cid:21)(cid:24)), Tama ((cid:4)(cid:12)´(cid:19)(cid:12)(cid:24)), Herclite
(‘(cid:5)(cid:22)(cid:12)(cid:17)(cid:18)(cid:31)(cid:16)´(cid:13)(cid:14)(cid:24)),orfromanotherforeignlanguage,likeMuceti(<Celt.Mogetios);names
identicalwithEtruscan(orItalic)praenomina,likeCae,Tite,Aule,whichhaveparallels
in Latin, or Larce, Vel(cid:28)e, which are only Etruscan; specific names for slaves, like Le(cid:15)e,
fem.Le(cid:15)i(a),(cid:11)ansi,orforfreedmen,likeLautniitself;ethnicnames,likeVenete,Lecusti.
Inaddition,thereareoccupationalnames,likeZi(cid:28)u,Fulu,Suplu,whichareneverused
assinglenames,butcanserveasfamilynames.
WewillbeginbyconsideringthenamestranscribedfromtheGreek,whichpro-
vide the most obvious cases. For example we find in Clusium the epitaph of a couple
inscribedonatile:
CIE,2096 = TLE,535 = Cl1.1645:Ti(cid:30)ile:lau(tni)/Vel(cid:28)es/Puliac
The husband bears a single name, Ti(cid:30)ile, transcribed from the Greek (cid:4)(cid:16)´(cid:30)(cid:16)(cid:18)(cid:21)(cid:24);
thencomestheindicationofhisstatuswith,inthegenitive,thegentiliciumofthemaster
whosefreedmanheis,nom.Vel(cid:28)e;thenameofthewife,Pulia,isco-ordinatethroughthe
enclitic -c, functionally equivalent to Latin -que: this name is single too, when the free
womenhadapraenomenandagentilicium,whichmeansthatthewifewasverylikelya
freedwoman.
Anotherepitaph,alsoonanossuaryinClusium,revealstheidentityoftheirson:
CIE,2934 = Cl1.2513:A(rn)(cid:15) :Ti(cid:30)ile:Palpe:Pulias
This man uses as a gentilicium the single name of his father, and puts before it an
Etruscan’s citizen ordinary praenomen; he adds a cognomen, Palpe, which corresponds
to the Lat. Balbus. The last name is his matronymic, in this case the single name of his
motherinthegenitive.Thenormalplaceforthepatronymicisvacant:asafreedmanthe
fatherdidnothaveapraenomenandhissinglenameisstillusedasagentilicium.
DuringtheRomanperiod,wefind,againinClusium,inLatin-writtenepitaphs,
thefeminineformofthegentilicium,usedasamatronymic,intheablative:
CIE,1584 = CIL,11,2229:L.HAERINA/TIPHILIA NATVS
orinthegenitive:
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CIE,1585 = CIL,11,2230:C.HERINA /L.F.TIPHILIAE/GNA[tus -----]
Then the family in its turn owns slaves, whom they can free; we know one of these
who,byaffinitywithRomanlaw,hastakenthegentiliciumbutnotthepraenomenofhis
formermaster:
CIE,2935 = Cl1.2512:AR.TIBILE.P.L(ibertus)
Thesocialpromotionofthefamilyiscomplete.
OthersinglenamesofGreekoriginusedasgentiliciacouldbementioned:such
asHerclite,whichtranscribes‘(cid:5)(cid:22)(cid:12)(cid:17)(cid:18)(cid:31)(cid:16)´(cid:13)(cid:14)(cid:24)(or‘(cid:5)(cid:22)(cid:12)´(cid:17)(cid:18)(cid:31)(cid:16)(cid:25)(cid:21)(cid:24)?).Itisthesinglenameofa
lautni,onanepitaphfromSarteano,nearClusium:
CIE,1486 = [Cl1.873]:HercliteTites/[Cl]ansl(autni)
ThismanisafreedmanofthefamilyoftheTiteClante,towhichwewillreturn.During
theRomanperiodwefindwhatisprobablythenameofhissonbothonanolla,inLatin
characters:
CIE,1488 = Cl1.836:C.HERCLITEHA(stiae)
andonatile,inabilingualinscription:
CIE,1487=TLE,500=Cl1.835:C.HER{.}CLIT(E)HA(stiae)/Cae/Ferclite
In both Latin inscriptions, the last two letters are the abbreviation of the
matronymic, here a praenomen, because the mother was probably a freedwoman; and
thereisnothingforthepatronymic,becausethefatherwasalautni,withoutpraenomen.
*
Among the single names of slaves and freedmen, which can become gentilicia, a very
importantgroupiscomposedofpraenominaalsobornebycitizens.Thewidediffusion
of these praenomina leads to the presence of the gentilicia from which they are derived
inseveralcities,hencetheassumptionthatwearedealingwithgreatfamilieswithmany
settlements; as a matter of fact they are all local lineages descended in each city from a
freedman,orevenfromseveralfreedmen.SomeofthesepraenominaareclosetoLatinor
“Italic”forms,likeCae,Tite,Aule,othersareonlyEtruscan,asLarce,Vel(cid:28)e.Forthefirst
group,letustakeasanexampleCae = Caius,anequivalenceconfirmed,ifnecessary,by
abilingualinscriptiononacippusinClusium:
NRIE,402-403 = TLE,462 = Cl 1.354: C. TREBONI. Q. F / GELLIA. NATVS
Cae/Trepu
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AfrequentpraenomeninEtruria,andespeciallyinClusium,Caewasalsoused
asasinglenameforslavesandfreedmen.Maybethesamemanhasmarked,whenhewas
stillaslave,astrigilwithhissinglenameandthegentiliciumofhismasterinthegenitive:
SE,22,132,2 = Cl6.8:CaeCultces
andthenwasgivenanepitaphonanossuary,provingthathereceivedthelautni-status:
CIE,1854 = SE,22,132,2 = Cl1.1530:Caelautni:Culteces
Inthefeminine,theformisCainei,asinglenameonanossuaryofPienza,near
Sienna:
CIE,1120 = AS1.381:Cainei
Afterwards Cae might become a gentilicium: we catch the beginning of the
processinsomeinscriptionsfromClusium,wherethename,alreadyusedasagentilici-
um,isneverthelessrepeated(inthegenitive),asthe(single)nameofthefather,alsoona
fictilelid:
CIE,1825 = Cl1.1339:Arn(cid:15)CaeCaes
Since we lack precise information about the finds, it is impossible to identify
withcertaintythismanastheonewho,onanolla,usesanidenticalformula,butaddsa
gentiliciuminthegenitive,probablythenameoftheformermasterofhisfather:
NRIE,326 = Cl1.140:Arn(cid:15):Cae:Caes:Marcnas
Later, the new gentilicium becomes part of more complete formulae, with cog-
nomenandmatronymic,likethisone,foundonanossuary:
CIE,1915 = Cl1.14::Ar(n(cid:15)):Cae:Patu/Atainal
orthisother,onanotherossuary,withtheadditionofthepatronymic:
CIE,1403 = Cl1.312:L(ar)(cid:15):Cae:Punpana:Lr:Larcial
Asaninstanceofgentiliciuminthefeminine,wemayquoteaninscriptiononan
ossuaryinClusium:
CIE,1512 = Cl1.815:Lar(cid:15)i:Cainei:Pumpus’a
Compared with the very numerous occurrences of the name as a gentilicium
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(about 300 inscriptions for both genders) only one inscription, on an olla, may present
thenameasacognomeninthefeminine;butthetextisdubiousandmustberead:
CIE,2825 = REE,50,105 = [Cl1.2394]:Lar(cid:15)ia.Teti.Cainei
accordingtothefacsimileoftheCIE,whereastheeditorsgiveotherdifferentreadings.
Among the praenomina which are only Etruscan, one of the more interesting is Larce
(< arch. Larece, Larice), abundantly attested as a citizen’s praenomen, particularly in
Clusium(CIE,1812.2108.2233.2995;gen.Larces:CIE,2835.4854Larces’a:CIE,1810.
1811.2987;SE,22,312),butalsoinPerugia(CIE,3935)orinSienna(CIE,301).Wefind
itasafreedman’ssinglenameinPerugia:
CIE,3600 = Pe1.1121:Larce.Mete/lis.lautni
orinClusium:
CIE,4690 = Cl1.426:Larce/lautni/S’e:Pa(-?-s)
yet again, for another lautni in Clusium, but preceded by a praenomen, as if the freed-
manwouldalreadychangeittoagentilicium:
CIE,1637add. = Cl1.686:A(rn)(cid:15):Larce/Fupre:Tet/nis:lautni
After that, Larce becomes in Clusium a regular gentilicium, present in several
formulaewithpraenomenandmatronymic,asforexample:
CIE,4853 = Cl1.695:Ar(n)(cid:15):Larce:Carnal
The frequency of this kind of epitaph, containing different matronymics, testi-
fiestoallianceswithancientfamilies,hencetoasuccessfulsocialintegration.Finallythe
nameisusedasacognomen:
CIE,1705 = Cl1.2480:L(ar)(cid:15):Tite:Larce:Ancarual
LarcegivesLat.Largus(cf.CIE,2108),whichisthename(gentiliciumorcognomen
?)ofamanmentionedbyCICERO(Fam.,6,8,1 = Ep.,558Beaujeu)asafriendofhispen-
friendA.Caecina,memberofanimportantfamilyinVolterra.Someyearslater,Largusisthe
cognomenofanotherCaecina,whobuilthiscity’stheatreinassociationwithhisbrother,the
consulof1B.C.,accordingtotheinscriptiononamonumentalslabofmarble:
CaecinaA.f.Seuerusco(n)s(ul)/C.CaecinaA.f.Larg[usfac(iundum)cur(auerunt)]
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Largus can be explained as a cognomen of maternal origin used after the union
ofbothfamilies.A.CaecinaLargus,aconsul(probablysuffect)in13AD,maybehisson,
andC.CaecinaLargus,acolleagueofClaudiusintheconsulatein42AD,hisgrandson.
The daughter of the consul of 13 AD, Caecinia A. f. Larga marries A. Larcius Lepidus,
whosegentiliciumseemstobeanotheradaptationinLatinofLarce.Andthereisalsoa
propraetorofThraciaunderSeptimusSeverus,in195/196-198AD,C.CaecinaLargus.
Onlyoneotherfamily,alsoofEtruscanorigin,usesthiscognomen,theAnniiof
Perugia,amongstwhomweknowofL.AnniusLargus,consulin109AD,andL.Annius
Largus,consulin147AD.ThiscognomenisnotinuseinanyotherRomanfamily,which
means that in spite of appearances it is not the Latin adjective largus (unless the later,
without an Indo-European etymology, is taken from the Etruscan !). Moreover as a
“Vornamencognomen” it can be observed in two different cities in totally unrelated
families. Thus it was possible, for descendants of a modest family to reach, over a few
generations,throughfar-seeingmarriages,theverysummitoftheState.
We may have another example of an Etruscan praenomen changed to a Latin
gentilicium with Veneleius, which is the gentilicium of a family of senators of the late
Republicandofseveralconsuls,in92,123and168AD:theconsulof123wasalsoprae-
tor Etruriae et quinquennalis of Pisa, which shows clearly his ties with the region. The
name has been compared with the archaic praenomen Venel, widely attested in several
cities,buttheintermediarystagesaremissing.
*
In contrast to citizen’s praenomina used also as single names by slaves and freedmen,
someothernamesarereservedfornonfree-bornindividuals.ThemostfrequentisLe(cid:15)e,
fem.Le(cid:15)i(a),whichappearsaloneontwovases(3rd-2ndcent.)foundinFiesole,asasig-
natureoftheartist,probablyaslave:
NRIE,178 = CIL,11,6700,1d = Fs6.3:Le(cid:15)e
CII,App.42Gamurrini = Fs6.4:Le(cid:15)e
It is difficult to determine the status of the man, who left the same name on an
archaicvase(6thcentury)foundinCaere,butwiththeadditionofanothernameinthe
genitive,probablythenameofhismaster,formeroractual:
NSA,1937,p.392B39;p.453 = Cr2.61:Le(cid:15)eCatanas
Then we find Le(cid:15)e as single name for freedmen, for example for a man in
Clusium:
CIE,1204 = Cl1.71:Le(cid:15)elavtni/Herines
orforawomaninthesamecity:
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CIE,2414 = Cl1.1255:Le(cid:15)ialautni(cid:15)a.Arntis
Finally the name appears as a gentilicium, simply preceded by a praenomen, in
aninscriptiononatileinClusium:
CIE,2404 = Cl1.1915:Aule/Le(cid:15)e
andintwoinscriptionsonossuariesinPerugia:
CIE,4380 = Pe1.1095:Arn(cid:15)Le(cid:15)e
CIE,4381 = Pe1.1096:S’e(cid:15)reLe(cid:15)e
Andthemanofthesecondonemaybethefatherofayoungchild,whobearsa
singlename,onanossuaryinthesamecity:
CIE,3997 = Pe1.541:Lar(cid:15):Le(cid:15)es:S’e(cid:15)res
ThesameformisusedforthenameofthehusbandofawomanstillinPerugia:
CIE,3996 = SE,36,234,4 = Pe1.540:Fasti.Cai.Le(cid:15)es
Twootherinscriptionsfromthesamecity,oneforaman,anotherforawoman
includeafreewoman’smatronymic:
CIE,4054 = Pe1.595:S’e((cid:15)re).Le(cid:15)e.Apur(cid:15)ial
CIE,4162 = Pe1.825:Lar(cid:15)i.Le(cid:15)i.Rafis.S’ential
Inversely, Le(cid:15)ial is present in some fifteen inscriptions, especially in Clusium
andPerugia,amongwhom:
CIE,4386 = Pe1.1106:(cid:11)ania.Lunces.Vl.Le(cid:15)ial
Le(cid:15)e itself is never used as cognomen, but Le(cid:15)iu is, as in this inscription, in
whichtheidentityofthematronymicmayperhapsillustratea“maternal”origin:
REE,50,21 = Pe1.876:Ar.Petrus.Le(cid:15)iu.La.Le(cid:15)ial
AnotherexampleofaspecificslaveandfreedmannameisMansi,whichappears
inexplicitformulae,withthenameoftheformermaster,asforinstanceonanossuaryin
Clusium:
CIE,521 = Cl1.491:(cid:11)ansi:Petrus:lautni
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and in the same city for the freedman of a man who bears the same name, therefore is
himselfafreedman,onatile,whichmustberead:
[CIE,2324 =] REE,50,68 [= Cl1.1830]:(cid:11)ansi/la(utni).(cid:11)ansi/s
Lastlylautni/lavtniitselfcanundergothesameprocess.Itisusedassolename,
asanownershipmarkonavaseinVolterra:
CII,359 = Vt2.9:Lavtni
then as a gentilicium, still in Volterra, on a lid, with a praenomen, a patronymic and a
matronymic:
CIE,129 = TLE,393 = Vt1.124:L.Lautni.V.Cavial
Inthisuse,thefeminineiswhatwewouldexpectinagenuinegentilicium,Lautnei/
Lavtnei,asprovedbytheepitaphofawoman,whocouldbethelatter’sdaughter:
CIE,159 = Vt1.126:Larti.Lautnei.L.ril.XXXIIII
Ethnicnamesarealsowellattested,especiallyinPerugia,wherewemeetawhole
lineage,titularofamonumentalsepulture,withthenameofVenete.Thenameindicates
that the founder of the family came from Northern Italy and had no other designation
than his origin of “Venetian,” which implies a servile status. However the attestations
seemtobeginonlywiththesecondgenerationfollowingthefreedman’s.
Anepitaphlike:
CIE,4143 = Pe1.806:S’e((cid:15)re).Venete.La.Le(cid:15)ial.clan
shows that the deceased, who bears the ethnic name as gentilicium, had a father who
already bore a praenomen and therefore was at least the freedman’s son; on the other
handtheexitfromtheservileclassisnotyetcomplete,sincethematronymicisstillatyp-
icalfreedwoman’ssinglename.
A son of this man’s could be one of three persons who have similar epitaphs,
with the same praenomen (obliterated in the third one), but different matronymics,
whichseemstoexcludethattheyshouldhavehadallthreethesamefather:
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CIE,4147 = Pe1.810:La(r(cid:15)).Venete.Vatinia(l)
CIE,4149 = Pe1.812:La(r(cid:15)).Venete.Mania(l)
CIE,4151 = Pe1.814:[--.]Venete.Atusna[l.cla]n
Inallcases,themothersbelongtofamiliesmoreorlesswellattestedinPerugia,
butthelackofpatronymicscastsadoubtovertheirsocialposition.Onthecontrary,the
gentiliciumisusedasamatronymicinaperfectlyregularformula:
CIE,4148 = Pe1.811:Lar(cid:15):Ham(cid:27)na:Aules:Venetial:clan
withpraenomen,gentiliciumandpatronymic,whichsanctionsthedefinitiveintegration
inPerugiansociety.
*
Some names of professions, which could be practised by slaves and freedmen, are well
known, as zi(cid:28)u, which comes from the root zi(cid:28)-, “write” and then designates the
“scribe”,asinanepitaphonasandstonelidfromPerugia:
CIE,3774b = TLE,601b = Pe1.1041:Lar(cid:15).Vetes zi(cid:28)u
Thiswordwasnotusedasasinglename,butwefinditasagentiliciumintwoinscrip-
tionsfromClusium,relatingtothesameman,onatileandonanossuaryrespectively:
CIE,1414 = Cl1.318:V(e)l.Zi(cid:28)u.Vl.Mutual
CIE,1415 = Cl1.319:V(e)l.Zi(cid:28)u.Vl./Mut(ual)
The onomastic formula includes also praenomen, patronymic and matronymic:
thedefunctisatleastthegrand-sonofthefreedmanwhofoundedthelineage.Foranother
manwiththesamegentilicium,alsofromClusium:
CIE,2242 = Cl1.1765:A(rn)(cid:15).Zi(cid:28)u.A(rn)(cid:15)/Sert(ur--)
theonomasticformulaisslightlydifferent,withoutamatronymic,butwithacognomen.
Finally,datedtothebeginningoftheRomanperiod,wehavethefamousbilin-
gualtext,whichprovesthemeaningoftherootthroughitsLatinequivalent:
CIE,1416 = TLE,472 = Cl1.320:Q.SCRIBONIUS.C.F/V(e)l.Zicu
We note that the Etruscan version does not include either patronymic or
matronymic,andthatthespellingisfaulty,sincetheaspirateisreplacedbythesimple(as
it would be in Latin); moreover the typically Etruscan praenomen V(e)l, is replaced in
Latinbyoneofthemostcommonpraenomina,Q(uintus).
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