Small Bodies in Planetary Systems PDF
Preview Small Bodies in Planetary Systems
Lecture Notes in Physics FoundingEditors:W.Beiglbo¨ck,J.Ehlers,K.Hepp,H.Weidenmu¨ller EditorialBoard R.Beig,Vienna,Austria W.Beiglbo¨ck,Heidelberg,Germany W.Domcke,Garching,Germany B.-G.Englert,Singapore U.Frisch,Nice,France F.Guinea,Madrid,Spain P.Ha¨nggi,Augsburg,Germany G.Hasinger,Garching,Germany W.Hillebrandt,Garching,Germany R.L.Jaffe,Cambridge,MA,USA W.Janke,Leipzig,Germany H.v.Lo¨hneysen,Karlsruhe,Germany M.Mangano,Geneva,Switzerland J.-M.Raimond,Paris,France D.Sornette,Zurich,Switzerland S.Theisen,Potsdam,Germany D.Vollhardt,Augsburg,Germany W.Weise,Garching,Germany J.Zittartz,Ko¨ln,Germany TheLectureNotesinPhysics TheseriesLectureNotesinPhysics(LNP),foundedin1969,reportsnewdevelopments in physics research and teaching – quickly and informally, but with a high quality and theexplicitaimtosummarizeandcommunicatecurrentknowledgeinanaccessibleway. Bookspublishedinthisseriesareconceivedasbridgingmaterialbetweenadvancedgrad- uatetextbooksandtheforefrontofresearchandtoservethreepurposes: • tobeacompactandmodernup-to-datesourceofreferenceonawell-definedtopic • to serve as an accessible introduction to the field to postgraduate students and nonspecialistresearchersfromrelatedareas • tobeasourceofadvancedteachingmaterialforspecializedseminars,coursesand schools Both monographs and multi-author volumes will be considered for publication. Edited volumes should, however, consist of a very limited number of contributions only. Pro- ceedingswillnotbeconsideredforLNP. VolumespublishedinLNParedisseminatedbothinprintandinelectronicformats,the electronicarchivebeingavailableatspringerlink.com.Theseriescontentisindexed,ab- stractedandreferencedbymanyabstractingandinformationservices,bibliographicnet- works,subscriptionagencies,librarynetworks,andconsortia. ProposalsshouldbesenttoamemberoftheEditorialBoard,ordirectlytothemanaging editoratSpringer: ChristianCaron SpringerHeidelberg PhysicsEditorialDepartmentI Tiergartenstrasse17 69121Heidelberg/Germany [email protected] I. Mann A.M. Nakamura T. Mukai (Eds.) Small Bodies in Planetary Systems 123 IngridMann AkikoM.Nakamura KobeUniversity KobeUniversity Dept.Earth&PlanetarySciences Dept.Earth&PlanetarySciences Rokkodai-choKobe Rokkodai-choKobe Nada-ku657-8501 Nada-ku657-8501 Japan Japan [email protected] TadashiMukai KobeUniversity Dept.Earth&PlanetarySciences Rokkodai-choKobe Nada-ku657-8501 Japan Mann,I.etal.(Eds.),SmallBodiesinPlanetarySystems,Lect.NotesPhys.758(Springer, BerlinHeidelberg2009),DOI10.1007/978-3-540-76935-4 ISBN:978-3-540-76934-7 e-ISBN:978-3-540-76935-4 DOI10.1007/978-3-540-76935-4 LectureNotesinPhysicsISSN:0075-8450 LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2008929548 (cid:2)c Springer-VerlagBerlinHeidelberg2009 Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.Allrightsarereserved,whetherthewholeorpartofthematerialis concerned,specificallytherightsoftranslation,reprinting,reuseofillustrations,recitation,broadcasting, reproductiononmicrofilmorinanyotherway,andstorageindatabanks.Duplicationofthispublication orpartsthereofispermittedonlyundertheprovisionsoftheGermanCopyrightLawofSeptember9, 1965,initscurrentversion,andpermissionforusemustalwaysbeobtainedfromSpringer.Violationsare liabletoprosecutionundertheGermanCopyrightLaw. Theuseofgeneraldescriptivenames,registerednames,trademarks,etc.inthispublicationdoesnotimply, evenintheabsenceofaspecificstatement,thatsuchnamesareexemptfromtherelevantprotectivelaws andregulationsandthereforefreeforgeneraluse. Coverdesign:eStudioCalamarS.L.,F.Steinen-Broo,Pau/Girona,Spain Printedonacid-freepaper 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 springer.com Preface The small bodies in planetary systems are indicative of the material evolu- tion,thedynamicalevolution,andthepresenceofplanetsinasystem.Recent astronomicalresearch,spaceresearch,laboratoryresearch,andnumericalsim- ulationsbroughtawealthofnewandexcitingfindingsonextra-solarplanetary systems and on asteroids, comets, meteoroids, dust, and trans-Neptunian ob- jects in the solar system. Progress in astronomical instrumentation led to the discovery and investigation of small bodies in the outer solar system and to observations of cosmic dust in debris disks of extra-solar planetary systems. Space research allowed for close studies of some of the small solar system bodies from spacecraft. This lecture series is intended as an introduction to the latest research results and to the key issues of future research. The chap- ters are mainly based on lectures given during a recent research school and on research activities within the 21st Century COE Program “Origin and Evolution of Planetary Systems” at Kobe University, Japan. In Chap. 1, Taku Takeuchi discusses the evolution of gas and dust from protoplanetary diskstoplanetarydisks.Usingasimplemodel,hestudiesvis- cousevolutionandphotoevaporationaspossiblemechanismsofgasdispersal. He further considers how the dust grows into planetesimals. Motion of dust particles induced by gas drag is described, and then using a simple analytic model, the dust growth timescale is discussed. Chap. 2 by Mark Wyatt covers the interpretation of observations of small bodies in extrasolar planetary systems. While observations of debris disks trace the distribution of dust in these systems, they can be used to infer the distributionoflargerbodies:planetesimalsandplanets.Thechapterdescribes a theory for the dynamics of dust–planetesimal–planet interactions. Such a theory is essential for a successful interpretation of the observations, and is equally applicable to the study of dust originating in the asteroid and Kuiper belts in the solar system. The collisional disruption of small bodies is a fundamental process in the formation and evolution of planetary systems. In Chap. 3, Akiko Naka- mura and Patrick Michel describe the current knowledge on collision VI Preface processesofasteroidsandrelevantlaboratorystudies.Relatedrecentfindings from the Hayabusa mission to the small asteroid 25143 Itokawa are shortly described. Subsequently, Patrick Michel presents in Chap. 4 the different disruption mechanismsthatcanaffectthephysicalpropertiesofsmallbodiesinplanetary systems over their history. Our current but still very poor understanding of the concept of material strength of those bodies and its role in the action of those mechanisms are also described. In Chap. 5 Shinsuke Abe discusses meteor observations in connection to properties of the meteoroid parent bodies. Meteors are phenomena that re- sult from interaction of meteoroids entering from interplanetary space with theEarth’supperatmosphere.Thederivedmeteoroidcharacteristicsbearpo- tential information to investigate their parent bodies, which are in majority comets and asteroids. Except for the meteor observations, the few cases of in-situ detections in space, and the limited studies of cosmic samples in terrestrial laboratories, our information concerning small bodies in planetary systems are based on astronomical observations, especially on the observations of cosmic dust. In Chap. 6, Aigen Li presents the theoretical basis for describing the optical properties of dust and the dust interaction with electromagnetic radiation. Thephysicalprocessesofthedustinplanetarydebrisdisksarediscussedin Chap.7byIngridMann.Planetarydebrisdisksareexposedtothebrightness of the central star, stellar wind, and energetic particles originating from the systemaswellasgalacticcosmicrayparticles.Bothstellarradiationandstel- lar wind give rise to a Poynting–Robertson effect, which limits the lifetime of thedustparticlesthatareinboundorbitaboutthestar(migration-dominated disks).Indebrisdiskswithhighdustcontentlifetimesduetomutualcollisions are even shorter (collision-dominated disks). Dust collisions are a potential source of second-generation gas in planetary debris disks. The chapter also touches on the role of non-thermal alteration for dust material evolution. In Chap. 8, Masateru Ishiguro and Munetaka Ueno describe recent devel- opments in observations of interplanetary dust particles. These developments arelargelyduetotheintroductionofcooledchargecoupleddevice(CCD)de- tectorsandtwo-dimensionalinfraredarraydetectorsusedwithinfraredspace telescopes. The new observational data show not only the global structure of the interplanetary dust cloud, e.g., its plane of symmetry, but also faint structures,asteroidaldustbands,andcometarydusttrails,seenasbrightness enhancementsofafewpercentabovethatofthesmoothcomponent.Spectro- graphic observations provide some knowledge about the dynamics and com- position of these local components. The observations reveal the connections between interplanetary dust particles and their parent bodies. The chapter ends by describing ongoing and future projects related to the observational study of interplanetary dust. Preface VII The past 15 years have seen a renaissance in the study of the outer solar system with the discovery of the Kuiper belt and the unveiling of previ- ously unexpected connections between distinct sub-populations of small bod- iesthroughoutthesystem.InchapterDaveJewittfocussesonsixofthemost research-active areas. The chapter includes the analysis of lightcurves for in- formation about structure and binarity, systematics of the densities of small bodies, the color (composition) distribution of Kuiper belt objects, the crys- talline state of ice and the nature of two little studied groups, the irregular satellites of the giant planets, and the newly perceived main-belt comets. In the final and 10th chapter, Yoichi Itoh describes the observational per- spectives. In this chapter, various observational methods of searching for ex- trasolar planets and circumstellar disks are reviewed. These include Doppler shiftmeasurements,transitdetection,astrometry,gravitationallensing,spec- tral energy distribution, direct detection, and coronagraphy. The synthesis of the presented and many other exciting studies will hope- fully converge towards a better understanding of the contents, origin and evolution of our planetary system and of planetary systems in general. We finallywouldliketothankallthosepeoplewhohelpedtowritethisbook:the authors of the different chapters, as well as all lecturers and participants of the Kobe Planetary School ‘Small Bodies in Planetary Systems’. Kobe Ingrid Mann December 2007 Akiko M. Nakamura Tadashi Mukai Contents 1 From Protoplanetary Disks to Planetary Disks: Gas Dispersal and Dust Growth T. Takeuchi ..................................................... 1 1.1 Introduction................................................ 1 1.2 A Simple Model of Protoplanetary Disks ....................... 3 1.3 Disappearance of the Gas Disks............................... 6 1.4 Dust Motion in the Gas Disk ................................. 12 1.5 Dust Growth ............................................... 19 1.6 Conclusions ................................................ 27 Appendix: List of Symbols ........................................ 28 References ...................................................... 30 2 Dynamics of Small Bodies in Planetary Systems M.C. Wyatt ..................................................... 37 2.1 Introduction................................................ 37 2.2 Observed Debris Disk Structures .............................. 39 2.3 Debris Disk Models.......................................... 44 2.4 Interaction Between Planets and Planetesimal Belt .............. 51 2.5 Interaction Between Planets and Dust ......................... 61 2.6 Conclusions ................................................ 65 References ...................................................... 68 3 Asteroids and Their Collisional Disruption A.M. Nakamura, and P. Michel.................................... 71 3.1 Introduction................................................ 72 3.2 Asteroids................................................... 73 3.3 Disruption by Hypervelocity Impact ........................... 80 3.4 Impact Process on Asteorid 25413 Itokawa ..................... 89 3.5 Summary and Perspectives ................................... 92 References ...................................................... 93 X Contents 4 On the Strength and Disruption Mechanisms of Small Bodies in the Solar System P. Michel ....................................................... 99 4.1 Introduction................................................ 99 4.2 The Strength of Materials ....................................101 4.3 Rotation Rates and Implications on the Strength of Small Bodies .108 4.4 Tidal Disruption of Small Bodies..............................112 4.5 Collisional Disruption of Small Bodies .........................118 4.6 Conclusion .................................................125 References ......................................................126 5 Meteoroids and Meteors – Observations and Connection to Parent Bodies S. Abe..........................................................129 5.1 Introduction of Meteoroids and Meteors........................129 5.2 Classifications ..............................................132 5.3 Observational Techniques ....................................137 5.4 Meteoroids to Zodiacal Clouds ................................141 5.5 Origin of Meteoroids.........................................142 5.6 Meteorites’ Orbits and Meteor Observation Networks ............144 5.7 Meteoroid Impacts on Other Planets...........................148 5.8 Meteoroids Influx on the Earth ...............................148 5.9 Spectrum and Composition of Meteoroids ......................150 5.10 Differential Ablation, Density, and Strength of Meteoroids........152 5.11 Organics and Water in Meteoroids ............................155 5.12 Association Between Comets and Asteroids Through Meteoroids ..159 Acknowledgments ................................................160 References ......................................................160 6 Optical Properties of Dust A. Li...........................................................167 6.1 Introduction................................................167 6.2 Scattering of Light by Dust: A Conceptual Overview ............169 6.3 Scattering of Light by Dust: Definitions ........................170 6.4 Scattering of Light by Dust: Dielectric Functions ................174 6.5 Scattering of Light by Dust: Analytic Solutions .................178 6.6 Scattering of Light by Dust: Numerical Techniques .............183 References ......................................................184 7 Evolution of Dust and Small Bodies: Physical Processes I. Mann ........................................................189 7.1 Introduction................................................189 7.2 The Stellar Environments ....................................192 7.3 Physical Processes ..........................................198 7.4 Entry of Interstellar Matter ..................................206 7.5 Collisional evolution .........................................208 Contents XI 7.6 Second Generation Gas Components...........................212 7.7 Dust Lifetimes..............................................213 7.8 Dust Rings – Rings Caused by Dust Sublimation................215 7.9 Dust Material Composition and Dust Alteration ................217 7.10 Summary ..................................................223 Acknowledgment.................................................225 References ......................................................225 8 Observational Studies of Interplanetary Dust M. Ishiguro and M. Ueno .........................................231 8.1 Introduction of Zodiacal Light ................................231 8.2 Dust Sources and Sinks ......................................233 8.3 Smooth Zodiacal Cloud Components ..........................241 8.4 Wavelength Dependency and Albedo ..........................247 8.5 Ongoing and Future Projects .................................249 References ......................................................252 9 Six Hot Topics in Planetary Astronomy D. Jewitt .......................................................259 9.1 Introduction................................................259 9.2 Lightcurves and Densities ....................................262 9.3 Color Distributions..........................................270 9.4 Spectroscopy of Primitive Matter .............................272 9.5 Irregular Satellites...........................................278 9.6 Main-Belt Comets...........................................281 9.7 Comets and Their Debris ....................................286 9.8 Epilogue ...................................................291 Acknowledgments ................................................291 References ......................................................291 10 Detection of Extrasolar Planets and Circumstellar Disks Y. Itoh .........................................................297 10.1 Introduction................................................297 10.2 Summary of Objects.........................................297 10.3 Indirect Detection...........................................299 10.4 Direct Detection ............................................311 10.5 Future Prospects............................................319 References ......................................................320 Index..........................................................325
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