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Silk: Materials, Processes, and Applications The Textile Institute Book Series Incorporated by Royal Charter in 1925, The Textile Institute was established as the professional body for the textile industry to provide support to businesses, practi- tioners and academics involved with textiles and to provide routes to professional qualifications through which Institute Members can demonstrate their professional competence. The Institute’s aim is to encourage learning, recognise achievement, re- ward excellence and disseminate information about the textiles, clothing and footwear industries and the associated science, design and technology; it has a global reach with individual and corporate members in over 80 countries. The Textile Institute Book Series supersedes the former ‘Woodhead Publishing Series in Textiles’ and represents a collaboration between The Textile Institute and Elsevier aimed at ensuring that Institute Members and the textile industry continue to have access to high calibre titles on textile science and technology. Books published in The Textile Institute Book Series are offered on the Elsevier web site at: store.elsevier.com and are available to Textile Institute Members at a sub- stantial discount. Textile Institute books still in print are also available directly from the Institute’s web site at: www.textileinstitute.org To place an order, or if you are interested in writing a book for this series, please contact Matthew Deans, Senior Publisher: [email protected] Recently Published and Upcoming Titles in The Textile Institute Book Series: New Trends in Natural Dyes for Textiles, Padma Vankar Dhara Shukla, 978-0-08-102686-1 Smart Textile Coatings and Laminates, William C. Smith, 2nd Edition, 978-0-08-102428-7 Advanced Textiles for Wound Care, 2nd Edition, S. Rajendran, 978-0-08-102192-7 Manikins for Textile Evaluation, Rajkishore Nayak Rajiv Padhye, 978-0-08-100909-3 Automation in Garment Manufacturing, Rajkishore Nayak and Rajiv Padhye, 978-0-08-101211-6 Sustainable Fibres and Textiles, Subramanian Senthilkannan Muthu, 978-0-08-102041-8 Sustainability in Denim, Subramanian Senthilkannan Muthu, 978-0-08-102043-2 Circular Economy in Textiles and Apparel, Subramanian Senthilkannan Muthu, 978-0-08-102630-4 Nanofinishing of Textile Materials, Majid Montazer Tina Harifi, 978-0-08-101214-7 Nanotechnology in Textiles, Rajesh Mishra Jiri Militky, 978-0-08-102609-0 Inorganic and Composite Fibers, Boris Mahltig Yordan Kyosev, 978-0-08-102228-3 Smart Textiles for In Situ Monitoring of Composites, Vladan Koncar, 978-0-08-102308-2 Handbook of Properties of Textile and Technical Fibres, 2nd Edition, A. R. Bunsell, 978-0-08-101272-7 Silk, 2nd Edition, K. Murugesh Babu, 978-0-08-102540-6 The Textile Institute Book Series Silk: Materials, Processes, and Applications Narendra Reddy Center for incubation innovation research and consultancy, Jyothy institute of technology Bengaluru, Karnataka, India An imprint of Elsevier Woodhead Publishing is an imprint of Elsevier The Officers’ Mess Business Centre, Royston Road, Duxford, CB22 4QH, United Kingdom 50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, OX5 1GB, United Kingdom © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/ permissions. This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein). Notices Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary. Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility. To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 978-0-12-818495-0 For information on all Woodhead publications visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals Publisher: Matthew Deans Acquisition Editor: Brian Guerin Editorial Project Manager: Rafael G. Trombaco Production Project Manager: Joy Christel Neumarin Honest Thangiah Cover Designer: Mark Rogers Typeset by SPi Global, India Sources and classification of silk 1 1.1 Introduction Unlike any other fiber, silk is produced on land, water and air. More than 23 differ- ent silk lineages in 17 insect orders have been recorded and classified (Table 1.1) (Sutherland et al., 2010). Most of the silk is produced by the Lepidoptera order of insects and specifically from the Bombycidae and Saturniidae species. Extensive stud- ies have been done to further classify the silks produced by the different species. One example of classifying silk, based on the sequence of amino acids, is given in Fig. 1.1. In addition, silk can also be classified based on the gland in which it is produced. Similarly, silk species have been classified based on the differences in the FTIR spec- tra (Boulet-Audet et al., 2015) which also was able to distinguish silk based on their composition as seen from Fig. 1.2. 1.2 Mulberry and non-mulberry silks The primary source of silk is from the cocoons of the insect Bombyx mori which has been domesticated for over 5000 years. Before B. mori was domesticated and used for silk production, it has been reported that silk was generated from Bombyx mandarina considered to be the wild ancestor of the B. mori silkworm. The two insects differ by one chromosome number with B. mori having 28 and B. man- darina having 27. However, these two species are considered to be infertile and hence produce distinct cocoons and resulting silk fibers. During the process of domestication, B. mori has evolved as the more suitable option to obtain silk fibers and although B. mandarina is prevalent, it is now considered as wild silk. More than 400 phenotypes and 4310 silkworm germplasm strains have been recorded world wide (Zanatta et al., 2009). The common mulberry silk worm belongs to the Bombycidae family with B. mori being the most common strain. B. mori silk worms feed on mulberry leaves and hence silk produced by B. mori is also called as mulberry silk. In addition to classification based on feed, B. mori silkworms have also been distinguished depending on the number of cocoon producing cy- cles. For example, univoltine silkworms have only one cocoon producing cycle compared to two cycles for bivoltine and multiple cycles for multivoltine silk (Table 1.2). Silkworms which feed on non-mulberry leaves are called wild silks and mostly belong to the saturniidae family and further classified into the Attacini sub-group (Fig. 1.3). Some of the common saturniidae insects (Fig. 1.4) also produce co- coons and silk as shown in figure (Chen et al., 2014). Tasar, muga and eri are the wild silks reared and commercially sold in relatively large quantities. The wild Silk: Materials, Processes, and Applications. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818495-0.00001-6 © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 2 Silk: Materials, Processes, and Applications Table 1.1 Type of insects that produce silk, the life stage in which they produce the silk and the gland(s) from which the silk is generated. Common name of insect Life stage Gland Jumping bristletails, silverfish Adult males Type III secretory units Mayflies Larvae Malpighian tubules Dragon flies Adult female Unknown Webspinners All stages Type III secretory units Crickets All stages Labial glands Book lice Adult females Labial glands Thrips Larvae and adults Malpighian tubules Kaboono montana Evans Unknown Unknown Water beetles Adult female Colleterial glands Plant eating beetles Larvae Malpighian tubules Lacewings Adult female Colleterial glands Lacewings and ant lions Larvae Malpighian tubules Saw flies and parasitic wasps Larvae Labial glands Parasitic wasps Adult female Abdomen secretion Bees, ants and wasps Larvae Labial gland Saw flies Larvae Labial gland Wasps Adult females Type III secretory units Wasps Adult females Labial glands Fleas Larvae Labial glands Dance flies Adult males Type III secretory units Glowworms Larvae Labial glands Midges Larvae Labial glands Butterflies, moths, caddisflies Larvae Labial glands silks can also be further classified based on their cocoon characteristics or habitat (Padaki et al., 2015). Wild silks are generally categorized as those that feed on non-mulberry plants. Wild silks can be classified broadly as temperate and tropical. Antheaea pernyi found in China, A. yamamai found in Japan and A. roylei, A. frithi and A. pernyi are prevalent in temperate conditions whereas A. mylitta is found in tropical conditions and mostly in India. Images of some of the cocoons produced by different wild silk worms are given in Fig. 1.4. The wild silks not only differ in terms of their composition and structure but also have to be processed using harsher conditions than mulberry silks. 1.3 Spider silks Archanids to which spiders belong consists of about 37,000 species and are known to produce silk with extraordinary properties. Different species of spiders produce silk from different glands such as ampullate (dragline), flagelliform etc. (Table 1.3, Fig. 1.5). The extraordinary properties of spider silks depend heavily on the species and glands and shows substantial variations. Sources and classification of silk 3 100 Antheraea pernyi 90 Antheraea yamamai 51 Actias selene 65 Samia cynthia ricini Saturniidae 100 Eriogyna pyretorum 84 Saturnia biosduvalii Manduca sexta Sphingidae Bombycoidea 47 52 Janpanese B. mandarina Chinese B. mandarina Bombycidae 100 Bombyx mori C108 95 100 Bombyx mori Xiafang 100 Bombyx mori Dazao ♦ Lepidoptera 100 Helicoverpa armigera Noctuidae 60 93 Hyphantria cunea Noctuoidea Ochrogaster lunifer Notodontidae 61 Phthonandria atrilineata Geometridae Geometroidea Ostrinia nubilalis 100 100 Chilo suppressalis Pyralididae Pyraloidea 100 Diatraea saccharalis Adoxophyes honmai 100 100 Grapholita molesta Tortricidae Tortricoidea 73 Spilanata jechriaspis Artogeia melete Pieridae 93 Coreana raphaelis Lycaenidae Papilionoidea 91 Acraea issoria Nymphalidae 100 Fabriciana nerippe Locusta migratoria Orthoptera (outgroup) Drosophila yakuba 100 Anopheles gambiae Diptera (outgroup) 0.05 Fig. 1.1 Phylogeny of lepidopteran insects based on the amino acid sequence of the gene 13 PCGs (Liu et al., 2013). Reproduced with permission through Elsevier Open Access Publication. 1.4 Marine silks Unique and distinct silks have been discovered in several marine animals but are probably the least studied among all the sources of silk. For instance, the amphipod (Crassicorophium bonelli) produces fine silk from its legs as an adhesive underwater (Kronenberger et al., 2012). A classification of the possible amphipods that produce marine silks are given in Fig. 1.6. Similar to C. bonelli, caddisflies belonging to the Tricoptera family produces silk based adhesives that are used to prepare structures for storing food. About 12,000 species of Trichoptera have been discovered and classified into sub or- ders of Annulipalpia, Spicipalpia and Integripalpia. Each species forms distinct cocoons usually for storage of food using stones and debris found underwater. These silks also differ in composition and properties compared to regular silks. Lack of alanine, higher amounts of arginine are distinct features. A mean hydrated net strength of 221 mN/m2 for Hydropsyche siltalia was reported. Ability of these insects to produce underwater silk using various substrates was demonstrated in an aquarium and also in a flow chamber (Ashton et al., 2012) (Fig. 1.7). Ability of the insects to form insoluble silk under water is quiet intriguing and is being studied further. 4 Silk: Materials, Processes, and Applications (A) (B) Sequencing FTIR Caligula simla Caligula simla Group 1 CCaalliigguullaa tchaibcehtaara SCaatluigrunliaa cpaacvhoanriaa High phenolic content Saturnia pavonia Caligula thibeta Saturnia pyri Saturnia pyri Eriogyna pyretorum Actias selene Actias selene Actias luna Actias luna Cricula trifenestrata Graellsia isabellae Eriogyna pyretorum Argema mittrei Opodiphthera eucalypti Argema mimosae Argema mittrei Group 2 18442 Opodiphthera eucalypti Argema mimosae Low phenol, low oxalate Cricula trifenestrata Antherina suraka Antheraea suraka Antheraea frithi Group 3 Antheraea frithi Antheraea pernyi High oxalate content 2709 AAnntthheerraaeeaa ypaemrnaymi ai AnAthnetrhaeeraa eyaa mmaymlittaai Antheraea Saturniini tribe Antheraea mylitta Antheraea roylei Antheraea roylei Antheraea polyphemus AAnntthheerraineaa s puoralykpahemus GraeLlloseiap ais akbaetinllakea dae LRHHooyyeaathplloosappc khhhaiooldtrriaania kgc ajealoccvroeobrpaiiaea CRaHoltlyHohassylaocahmploihlipdaohi rapoa rrj oaacmce gocelbrotoahvpeeeiraaai GHirgohu ps e4ricin content Saturnii Callosamia promethea Samia cynthia Samia cynthia Samia canningi Attacini tribe Samia canningi Attacus atlas Epiphora bauhiniae Attacus edwardsii Attacus atlas Epiphora bauhiniae Attacus edwardsii Nephila edulis dragline Bombyx mori Bombyx mori Bombycinae Group 5 (AG)n b-sheets Bombyx mandarina Bombyx mandarina Gonometa postica Anaphe panda Noctuidae Nephila edulis dragline Gonometa postica Lasiocampidae 0 400 800 1200 1600 Dissimilarity (Euclidean distance) Fig. 1.2 Classification of silk producing Lepidopteran insects based on the differences in FTIR spectra (Boulet-Audet et al., 2015). Published through open access publication under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License. Table 1.2 Common silkworm varieties and their voltinism. Common name Scientific name Voltinism Mulberry silk Bombyx mori Uni, Bi and Multi Tasar silk (tropical Antheraea mylitta Uni, Bi and Multi Tasar silk (Temperate) A. prayeli Bi Muga silk A. assamensis Multi Eri silk (Domesticated) Philosamia ricini Multi Eri silk (wild) P. Cynthia Uni and Bi Mussels which belong to the Bivalvia class are another species of animals that pro- duce silk under water. Commonly referred to as byssal threads, they help in anchoring of the mussels to various substrates. The byssal threads are quiet unique since one end is stiff and strong whereas the other end is soft and flexible. However, the structure and properties of the mussels from different species (Fig. 1.8) vary considerably. For instance, Pinna noblis generates thousands of fine fibers known as sea silk (Fig. 1.9). Comparatively, Mytilus species produces silk made up to globular proteins organized into nanofibrils (Pasche et al., 2018). Sources and classification of silk 5 100 Antheraea pernyi domestic 100 Antheraea pernyi wild 92/99 Antheraea yamamai 98/99 Actias selene Saturniini Saturnia pyretorum 100 100 Saturniidae Caligula boisduvalii Attacus atlas 99 98/100 Samia cynthia Attacini 100 Samia ricini 100 Manduca sexta Bombyx mandarina Japan Bombyx mori Bombycidae 52/67 Bombyx mandarina China Thitarodes renzhiensis Drosophila melanogaster 0.05 Fig. 1.3 Classification of silk producing insects based on phylogeny of Bombycidae species (Chen et al., 2014). Reproduced with permission from Elsevier. A. mylitta A. assama A. frithi A. roylei A. pernyi A. atlas P. ricini G. postica II. cecropia A. polyphemus Fig. 1.4 Images of some of the cocoons produced by different wild silkworms (Kundu et al., 2012). Reproduced with permission from John Wiley and Sons.

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