Shellfish Safety and Quality

641 Pages·2009·7.472 MB·641\641

by  Shumway, Sandra E., Rodrick, Gary E. (Eds.)

Shellfish safety and quality
Edited by
Sandra E. Shumway and Gary E. Rodrick
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Preface
Itisestimatedthatbytheyear2050theworld’spopulationwillreach10billion
people, and seafood, especially cultured shellfish, will play a major role in
feeding these populations. Shellfish are a very popular and nutritious food
source worldwide and their consumption continues to rise globally. Because of
theiruniquenatureascomparedwithbeefandpoultry,shellfishhavetheirown
distinct aspects of harvest, processing and handling. Guaranteeing shellfish
qualityandsafetyiscriticalforprotectingpublichealthaswellasformarketing
seafood products. This collection of review papers discusses issues of current
interestandreviewsstepsthatcanbetakenbytheshellfishindustrytomaintain
and improve shellfish safety and eating quality.
The United States Senate recently introduced the Commercial Seafood
Consumer Protection Act, legislation to improve the safety of seafood products
imported into the United States, and two recent FAO publications, Huss et al.
(2004)andAbabouchetal.(2005)provideexcellentoverviews ofinternational
management issues associated with seafood safety and international trade. We
believe that Shellfish safety and quality takes these documents a step further,
specifically detailing issues related to shellfish.
The opening chapters provide an overview of the key issues associated with
microbial and biotoxin contamination. Parts II and III then address in more
detailmethodstoimprovemolluscanshellfishandcrustaceanqualityandsafety.
Chapters focus on detection of algal toxins, monitoring and mitigation of the
effects of harmful algal blooms, metals and organic contaminants, biofouling,
disease control and selective breeding. Part IV reviews legislation, regulation,
public confidence in shellfish and risk management. Chapters on post-harvest
issues, such as depuration, storage and packaging complete the volume.
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Several individuals have helped to make this volume possible. Lynsey
Gathercole, Sarah Whitworth and Woodhead Publishing recognized the gap in
theavailableliteratureandpersuaded ustotakeonthechallengeoffillingit.A
great debt is owed to the authors for providing their time and expert contribu-
tions and especially for their patience during the inevitable delays. Max
provided countless hours of support and, sadly, will not get to see the final
volume.
Shellfish safety and quality will be an essential reference for those in the
shellfish industry, managers, policymakers and academics in the field.
References
ABABOUCH,L.,G.GANDINI and J.RYDER (2005) Causes of Detentions and Rejections in
InternationalFishTrade.FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations
FisheriesTechnical Paper473, Rome.
HUSS, H.H., L. ABABOUCH and L. GRAM (2004) Assessment and Management of Seafood
Safety and Quality. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
FisheriesTechnical Paper444, Rome.
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Contents
Contributor contact details ............................................. xiii
Preface ................................................................. xix
Part I Shellfish safety: an introduction
1 Microbial contamination and shellfish safety ................... 3
S. Jones, University of New Hampshire, USA
1.1 Introduction .................................................. 3
1.2 Major microbial contaminants of shellfish ................... 4
1.3 Impacts of microbial contamination of shellfish on human
health ........................................................ 7
1.4 Effects of microbial contamination on the international
shellfish industry ............................................. 10
1.5 Incidence of microbial contamination in shellfish waters .... 15
1.6 Contamination sources and their identification ............... 20
1.7 Future trends ................................................. 27
1.8 Sources of further information and advice ................... 28
1.9 References and further reading ............................... 28
2 Biotoxin contamination and shellfish safety ..................... 43
H. He´garet, University of Connecticut, USA, G. H. Wikfors, NOAA
Northeast Fisheries Science Center, USA and S. E. Shumway,
University of Connecticut, USA
2.1 Introduction .................................................. 43
2.2 Origins of phycotoxins ....................................... 47
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2.3 Trophic dynamics of phycotoxins in molluscan shellfish ..... 52
2.4 Human health impacts ....................................... 57
2.5 Management responses ....................................... 59
2.6 Economic impacts of harmful algal blooms (HABs) ......... 66
2.7 Conclusions .................................................. 67
2.8 Future trends ................................................. 67
2.9 References and further reading ............................... 68
Part II Improving molluscan shellfish safety and quality
3 Viral contaminants of molluscan shellfish: detection and
characterisation .................................................. 83
A. Bosch and R. M. Pinto´, University of Barcelona, Spain and
F. S. Le Guyader, Laboratoire de Microbiologie, France
3.1 Introduction: human enteric viruses and their fate in the
environment .................................................. 83
3.2 Shellfish-borne transmission of virus infections .............. 85
3.3 Effects of viral contamination of molluscs on the international
shellfish industry ............................................. 88
3.4 Methods for detecting viruses in molluscan shellfish and
associated problems .......................................... 89
3.5 Improvingdetectionofmolluscanshellfishviruscontamination
using new molecular-based methods ......................... 93
3.6 Depuration of viral contaminants in molluscan shellfish ..... 95
3.7 Future trends in virus studies in shellfish .................... 96
3.8 References ................................................... 98
4 Monitoring viral contamination of molluscan shellfish ......... 108
M. Pommepuy, J. C. Le Saux, D. Hervio-Heath and S. F. Le Guyader,
IFREMER, France
4.1 Introduction .................................................. 108
4.2 Identifying sources of pollution .............................. 110
4.3 Identifying the conditions responsible for microbial
contamination of shellfish .................................... 112
4.4 Potential strategies for reducing microbial contamination in
shellfish harvesting areas .................................... 114
4.5 Improving risk management strategies for shellfish
harvesting areas .............................................. 118
4.6 Conclusions and future trends ................................ 120
4.7 References and further reading ............................... 121
5 Algal toxins and their detection ................................. 129
G. Boyer, State University of New York, USA
5.1 Introduction .................................................. 129
5.2 Major algal toxins found in shellfish and their sources ...... 130
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5.3 Current methods for detection of algal toxins in shellfish .... 142
5.4 New techniques and future trends ............................ 153
5.5 References ................................................... 154
6 Monitoring of harmful algal blooms ............................ 162
P. Andersen, Orbicon A/S, Denmark
6.1 Introduction .................................................. 162
6.2 Action plan design ........................................... 164
6.3 Regulation of mandatory harmful algal monitoring
programmes .................................................. 166
6.4 Methods and techniques used to forecast and monitor
harmful algal blooms ........................................ 168
6.5 Future trends ................................................. 170
6.6 Sources of further information and advice ................... 171
6.7 References and further reading ............................... 172
7 Mitigation of effects of harmful algal blooms ................... 175
M. Sengco, Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, USA
7.1 Introduction .................................................. 175
7.2 Novel techniques to mitigate the effects of harmful algal
blooms ....................................................... 177
7.3 Ethos of harmful algal bloom (HAB) control ................ 190
7.4 Future trends ................................................. 190
7.5 Sources of further information and advice ................... 191
7.6 References ................................................... 191
8 Modelling as a mitigation strategy for harmful algal blooms .. 200
J. Blanco, Centro de Investigacio´ns Marin˜as, Spain
8.1 Introduction .................................................. 200
8.2 Why model the accumulation of toxins in bivalves? ......... 201
8.3 Historical use and development of toxin/toxicity accumulation
models ....................................................... 204
8.4 Models of the kinetics of accumulation and transformation of
toxins in shellfish. ........................................... 206
8.5 Applications of modelling for improved shellfish safety and
quality ....................................................... 220
8.6 Future trends ................................................. 221
8.7 Sources of further information and advice ................... 222
8.8 References ................................................... 223
9 Metals and organic contaminants in bivalve molluscs .......... 228
W.-X. Wang, HKUST, Hong Kong
9.1 Introduction .................................................. 228
9.2 Metal concentrations in bivalve molluscs .................... 229
9.3 Internal speciation of metals in bivalve molluscs ............ 233
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9.4 Exposure routes and application of the kinetic model ........ 234
9.5 Uptake and transfer of metals ................................ 236
9.6 Safety standards .............................................. 240
9.7 Detection, management, and risk assessment ................. 241
9.8 Future trends ................................................. 242
9.9 Acknowledgments ........................................... 243
9.10 References ................................................... 243
10 Managing molluscan shellfish-borne microbial diseases ........ 248
T. Soniat, University of New Orleans, USA (formerly of Nicholls
State University, USA)
10.1 Introduction .................................................. 248
10.2 Microbial indicators and pollution-associated pathogens ..... 249
10.3 Enteric viruses ............................................... 252
10.4 Naturally occurring pathogens ............................... 254
10.5 Pathogens associated with handling, processing, and
distribution ................................................... 257
10.6 Management of pollution-associated pathogens .............. 258
10.7 Management of naturally occurring pathogens ............... 259
10.8 Management of pathogens associated with handling,
processing, and distribution .................................. 261
10.9 Future trends ................................................. 262
10.10 Sources of further information and advice ................... 263
10.11 Acknowledgments ........................................... 263
10.12 References ................................................... 263
11 Disease and mollusc quality ...................................... 270
S. Corbeil, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research
Organisation (CSIRO), Australia and F. C. J. Berthe, Animal Health
and Welfare Unit, Italy
11.1 Introduction .................................................. 270
11.2 Major pathogens and diseases of molluscs causing significant
economic losses in molluscan aquaculture ................... 271
11.3 Diagnostic methods .......................................... 279
11.4 Effects of shellfish disease on the international shellfish
industry ...................................................... 279
11.5 Reducing disease in molluscan aquaculture .................. 281
11.6 Future trends ................................................. 283
11.7 Sources of further information and advice ................... 284
11.8 References ................................................... 285
12 Hazard analysis and critical control point programs for raw
oyster processing and handling .................................. 295
V. Garrido and S. Otwell, University of Florida, USA
12.1 Introduction .................................................. 295
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12.2 HACCP for oyster production and safety .................... 298
12.3 HACCP plan for processing of frozen raw oysters ........... 300
12.4 Hazard analysis .............................................. 301
12.5 Identify the critical control points (CCP) .................... 301
12.6 Definition of critical limits (CL) ............................. 306
12.7 Designate monitoring procedures ............................ 306
12.8 Corrective action (CA) ....................................... 309
12.9 Specify verification (and validation) procedures ............. 309
12.10 Specified records ............................................. 310
12.11 References ................................................... 310
Appendix: Annex 1 – examples of HACCP and sanitation records .. 311
13 Biofouling and the shellfish industry ............................ 317
D. I. Watson, University College Cork, Ireland and S. E. Shumway
and R. B. Whitlatch, University of Connecticut, USA
13.1 Introduction .................................................. 317
13.2 Biofouling and shellfish ...................................... 318
13.3 Problems and benefits of biofouling ......................... 320
13.4 Current removal/treatment methods .......................... 325
13.5 Future trends ................................................. 331
13.6 Sources of further information and advice ................... 331
13.7 Acknowledgments ........................................... 332
13.8 References and further reading ............................... 332
Part III Improving crustacean safety and quality
14 Optimization of crustacean quality through husbandry and
adherence to post-harvest standards for processing ............ 339
L. R. D’Abramo, J. L. Silva and T. Kim, Mississippi State
University, USA
14.1 Introduction .................................................. 339
14.2 Land (site) selection ......................................... 340
14.3 Water: source, conservation, and preservation of quality ..... 341
14.4 Fertilization and semi-intensive systems ..................... 342
14.5 Formulated feeds, bio-flocs, and intensive pond culture
systems ...................................................... 344
14.6 Substrate ..................................................... 345
14.7 Water quality management ................................... 346
14.8 Collection during harvest .................................... 348
14.9 Harvest and post-harvest treatment ........................... 349
14.10 Safety and quality standards ................................. 350
14.11 Conclusions .................................................. 357
14.12 References ................................................... 357
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15 Development of vaccines and management of viral diseases of
crustaceans ....................................................... 359
M. C. W. van Hulten, Intervet International BV, The Netherlands and
A. C. Barnes and K. N. Johnson, Queensland University, Australia
15.1 Introduction: disease and the foundations for preventative
healthcare in aquaculture ..................................... 359
15.2 Using the RNA interface to target shrimp viruses ............ 365
15.3 Developing vaccines to manage viral disease in shrimp ..... 369
15.4 Using vaccines as part of health management strategies ..... 372
15.5 Future trends ................................................. 375
15.6 Sources of further information and advice ................... 376
15.7 References ................................................... 376
16 Specific pathogen-free shrimp stocksin shrimp farming facilities
as a novel method for disease control in crustaceans ........... 384
D. V. Lightner and R. M. Redman, University of Arizona, USA and
S. Arce and S. M. Moss, The Oceanic Institute, USA
16.1 Introduction .................................................. 384
16.2 The concept of domesticated SPF shrimp: a historical
perspective ................................................... 386
16.3 Events leading to development of Litopenaeus vannamei as
the dominant species in the Americas ........................ 388
16.4 Adaptation of the SPF concept to domesticated shrimp
stocks ........................................................ 392
16.5 International Principles for Responsible Shrimp Farming .... 397
16.6 Biosecurity and the culture of wild seed/broodstock ......... 413
16.7 Biosecurity through environmental control and best
management practices ........................................ 414
16.8 Conclusions .................................................. 415
16.9 Acknowledgments ........................................... 415
16.10 References and further reading ............................... 416
17 Selective breeding of penaeid shrimp ............................ 425
S. M. Moss and D. R. Moss, Oceanic Institute, USA
17.1 Introduction .................................................. 426
17.2 Selective breeding ........................................... 427
17.3 Conclusions .................................................. 444
17.4 References ................................................... 445
Part IV Regulation and management of shellfish safety
18 Legislation, regulation and public confidence in shellfish ...... 455
C. Askew, Shellfish Association of Great Britain, UK
18.1 Introduction: public confidence in shellfish .................. 455
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