Shame: Interpersonal Behavior, Psychopathology, and Culture (Series in Affective Science)

303 Pages·1998·19.92 MB·English

by  Paul Gilbert

SHAME
SERIES IN AFFECTIVE SCIENCE
Series Editors
Richard J. Davidson
Paul Ekman
Klaus Scherer
The Nature of Emotion
Fundamental Questions
edited by Paul Ekman and Richard J. Davidson
Boo!
Culture, Experience, and the Startle Reflex
Ronald Simons
Emotions in Psychopathology
Theory and Research
edited by William F. Flack Jr. and James D. Laird
What the Face Reveals
Basic and Applied Studies of Spontaneous Expression
Using the Facial Action Coding System (FACS)
edited by Paul Ekman and Erika Rosenberg
Shame
Interpersonal Behavior,
Psychopathology, and Culture
edited by Paul Gilbert and Bernice Andrews
SHAME
Interpersonal Behavior,
Psychopathology,
and Culture
Edited by
Paul Gilbert
Bernice Andrews
New York Oxford
Oxford University Press
1998
Oxford University Press
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Copyright © 1998 by Oxford University Press, Inc.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Shame : interpersonal behavior, psychopathology, and culture /
edited by Paul Gilbert, Bernice Andrews.
p. cm.—(Series in affective science)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-19-511479-5; 0-19-511480-9 (pbk)
1. Shame. 2. Shame—Social aspects. I. Gilbert, Paul.
II. Andrews, Bernice. III. Series.
BF575.S45S53 1998
152.4—DC21 97-44735
3 5 7 9 8 6 42
Printed in the United States of America
on acid-free paper
Preface
S
S^hame has been recognized since antiquity. A strong theme of shame exists in
the early stories of Adam and Eve. However, it has only been in the last 20 years
or so that shame has been subject to systematic research and theory development.
In this volume we have brought together key individuals who are active in re-
search, theory, and therapy. We hope to offer a book that covers the variety of
approaches to shame, as well as ways of conceptualizing shame.
The two introductory chapters in Part I attempt to cover some of the core issues
and current controversies concerning shame. Many of the issues covered in the
first of these chapters—such as the relationship of shame to negative internal and
external evaluation, the linkage with anxiety and anger, and the way in which
shame acts as a modulator of interpersonal and social relationships—are taken up
as key themes by other authors throughout the book. The second chapter explores
methodological and definitional issues related to the study of shame, with a focus
on research, since it is only by empirical investigation that a number of the con-
troversies will ultimately be answered. The point is made that, as yet, there remain
a large number of obstacles to be overcome in regard to research methodology and
shame.
In Part II, on interpersonal behavior, Alan Schore continues his well-regarded
explorations into the role of shame on the development of the infant brain. As he
points out, by the time the child has become mobile, the primary caregiver has
moved from being purely a provider to also being a socializer. As the child enters
the domains of prohibitions, shame and the use of shaming play a significant role
in the control of the child's behavior. This in turn has major impacts on brain
maturation. In chapter 4, Dacher Keltner and Lee Anne Harker explore the fasci-
nating concept of shame in relation to appeasement behavior. The nonverbal com-
munication signals of shame have been recognized for some time (e.g., eye
vi PREFACE
gaze avoidance, slumped posture). The authors, however, explore recent research
to present an important hypothesis regarding the appeasement function of shame.
In chapter 5, Paul Gilbert and Michael McGuire continue with this theme, explor-
ing the way shame has evolved from submissive appeasement signals, particularly
following conflicts between conspecifics. However, they point out that human
status and submission tend to be related to specific roles. One can feel inferior in
a particular role, for instance, as a leader, as a parent, or as a sexual partner. Gilbert
and McGuire explore how humans are motivated to obtain status by being seen as
attractive and how shame is often linked to "unattractiveness." Chapter 6, by Mi-
chael Lewis, explores the important relationship between shame as a personal and
interpersonal construct and stigma as a social label. In chapter 7, James Macdonald
considers the notion that shame often involves fear of disclosure. The normal char-
acteristic of a shamed individual is to conceal and hide from view that which is
shameful. Macdonald, however, shows that there is far more disclosure of shameful
information, particularly in psychotherapeutic contexts, than current research
might suggest.
Part III explores the linkage between shame and psychopathology. Again, this
is a domain that has a fairly long history in psychoanalysis, although guilt and
shame have often been treated as the same phenomenon. In chapter 8, Digby Tan-
tarn explores the idea that shame can be understood as a sentiment. He outlines
the way in which sentiments may differ from emotions and how sentiments are
rather long-lived dispositions which may increase proneness to certain kinds of
emotional disorders. In chapter 9, Bernice Andrews explores the link of trauma-
induced shame to early physical and sexual abuse and psychopathology. She re-
views much of her recent research in the area, noting the important link between
abuse, shame, and chronic depression. In chapter 10, Thomas Scheff explores
shame via content analysis within the framework of labeling theory. This chapter
exposes the way shame often operates in certain kinds of interpersonal conflicts
and the manner in which these can be understood by careful content analysis of
discourses. In chapter 11, Suzanne Retzinger considers the role of shame in ther-
apeutic countertransference. She makes it clear that shame can disrupt the social
bond in both the therapist and the patient. She provides fascinating case material
showing how this actually happens and how it is detrimental to the therapy proc-
ess.
All of these chapters address the important role that shame can play in psycho-
pathology. The authors are concerned with outlining how shame can play a role
not only in the formation of pathology and its manifestation but also in efforts to
treat pathology.
Part IV raises the important notion that shame is not just related to internal
experiences but that notions of shame act as socially shared information about
one's status and standing in the community. In chapter 12, Deborah Greenwald
and David Harder explore the evolutionary and cultural aspects of shame. They
point out that sharne seems to be closely associated with some specific domains
of social behavior, such as conformity, prosocial, and sexual behavior. Nearly all
cultures have some means by which they shame individuals who step out of line
in these areas. In chapter 13, Nancy Lindisfarne explores the important notion that
the honor and shame systems of males and females can be intimately linked within
a socially constructed view of honor. She explores how female virginity and con-
PREFACE vii
trol over female virginity can be a matter of honor, prestige, and shame for males
in certain cultures. In chapter 14, Dov Cohen, Joseph Vandello, and Adrian Rantilla
take us further into the cultural dynamics of shame by exploring the way social
discourses about honor can shape behavioral and emotional responses to insults.
They combine a complex and informative experimental methodology within a so-
cially articulate model of shame and honor.
Shame can mean different things to different people. This is both a challenge
and a danger. The challenge is not necessarily to homogenize all views of shame
but to try to clarify how the different domains operate and how researchers, the-
orists, and therapists define the concept of shame. The fact that shame can operate
at the level of the individual, the interpersonal relationship, the group, and even
the culture suggests that, unlike other phenomena such as social anxiety, shame
has implicit meanings that go beyond the personal. Shame cannot therefore be
seen purely as a self-conscious experience but as one which encapsulates a mul-
titude of domains that relate to social interaction. Indeed, to be unaware of what
is shameful within one's social group is to risk both serious damage to one's social
identity and ostracism.
Derby P.G.
Surrey B.A.
August 1997
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Acknowledgments
T
I he idea for this book grew out of a small working group that first met in 1994.
James Macdonald organized a "Shame Group" at the University of Warwick, which
provided the opportunity for people interested in the topic to exchange many ideas
and develop new concepts. The Shame Group has now moved to the University
of Derby and meets about twice a year. Another key factor was the encouragement
and support of Dr. Paul Ekman. After a very enjoyable breakfast at a Cambridge
conference in 1995, Dr. Ekman thought the idea for a book on shame, which focuses
on social behavior, might fit in with Oxford University Press's Series on Affective
Science. He has been extremely helpful in facilitating this process. We also thank
Joan Bossert at Oxford University Press, who was able to take our fledgling ideas
for a book and help us develop them into a more robust project. Elaine Kehoe's
hard work as copyeditor for the manuscripts brought significant improvements in
style and comprehensibilty. Last, but not least, we thank all the authors for their
efforts in making our job both a pleasure and a learning experience.