Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi

102 Pages·2012·2.87 MB·English

Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi (Rh.) & his Reforms 1 2 Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi (Rh.) & his Reforms
Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi (Rh.) & his Reforms 3 4 Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi (Rh.) & his Reforms
Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi (Rh.)
& his Reforms
Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi (Rh.) & his Reforms
Dr. A.F.M. Abu Bakar Siddique

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Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi (Rh.) & his Reforms 5 6 Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi (Rh.) & his Reforms
Acknowledgement

My hearty thanks are owed to my supervisor Dr.

Muhammad Mustafizur Rahman, Professor, Department of

Arabic, University of Dhaka, whose suggestions, Proper
A thesis submitted for the degree of guidance and encouragement have been invaluable throughout
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in Arabic. all aspects of this work. It is due to his kind sympathy and
direct help that enabled me to make an extensive tour to India

and Pakistan to collect valuable materials for the work.

During my study tour in India, I had a chance to meet

Moulana sayid Abul Hasan Ali Nadwi at nadwatul Ulama,
Lucknow and Dr. Mukhtar Ahmad, Professor and Head of the
Department of Arabic, Aligarh Muslim University. I owe to
them my gratitude for their valuable suggestions and for giving

me some rare materials which proved to be very important in
By
preparing this work.
A. F. M. ABU BAKAR SIDDIQUE
I acknowledge my gratitude to Dr. A.K.M. Ayyub Ali,
B. A. (Hons), M. A., M. M. formerly principal Madrasa I Alia, Dhaka, for kindly
Assistant Professor suggesting me the topic and also for his unfailling
encouragement to me during this work.
DEPARTMENT OF ARABIC
I am indebted to the staff and authorities of the libraries,

museums and Kutub Khanas of Bangladesh, India and Pakistan,

who helped me in various ways in preparing this work,
particularly to those of Khoda Baksh Library, Patna; Nadwatul
Ulama Lucknow; Aligarh muslim University; Madrasa i Alia,
Calcutta; Mazharul Ulum Madrasa, Saharanpur; Darul Ulum,

Deoband; Kutub Khana Khanqa i Mujaddedia, Sirhind; the

punjab university; Jame a Ashrafia, Lahore; Jame a faruqia,
UNIVERSITY OF DHAKA
Darul Ulum, New Town Karachi; Madrasa i Alia, Dhaka;
DHAKA Dhaka Universty; Islamic Foundation; Dhaka; khanqa Nazr
BANGLADESH Imam, Narinda, Dhaka; and Khanqa I Mujaddedia, Kolutola,
Dhaka.
JUNE 6, 1986.
I am thankful to the Islamic foundation Bangladesh for
Ramadan 27, 1406.
awarding me a financial help enabling me to undertake a study

tour to India and Pakistan, to the Bangladesh University Grants

Commission and Dhaka University for financially helping me
for typing photo-copying and binding the thesis.
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Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi (Rh.) & his Reforms 7 8 Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi (Rh.) & his Reforms
Transliteration Introduction

Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi (971/1561/1034/1624) was born in
India in such a time when the political, Social and religious
, d
conditions of the Muslims were at a critical juncture. The
Shaikh played an enduring role against the then heterogeneous
a t onslaughts to the very faith of Islam and ultimately came out
successful. He strove hard with whole-hearted devotion to
b z reform and to bring about a silent revolution in the total life of
the Muslim's of india, as well as that of the other Muslim
countries of the world. For this great achievement he is still
t
‘ remembered as Mujaddid Alf Thani- Renovator of the Second
Millennium, throughout the Muslim world.
th gh In this work attempts have been made to evaluate the
monumental achievements of Shaikh Ahmad sirhindi in the
j f field of rejuvenation of Islam. Some work's on some of the
particular aspects such as- "Metaphysics of Shaikh Ahmad
Sirhindi" and "The Mujaddid`s conception of Towhid" 'have
h q
been done by the scholars. But no concerted effort, to my
knowledge, has as yet been done for the overall evaluation of
kh k the reformative achievements of the Shaikh. To meet this need
I have under-taken the task.
d l It consists of six chapters : First chapter deals with the
Social, Political and religious conditions of India during 10th
and 11th centuries. In the second chapter the life and works of
dh m
the Shaikh have been discussed. The third chapter includes a
discussion on the conception of Mujaddid in Islam, with
r n special reference to Mujaddid Alf Thani. The contributions of
the Mujaddid towards with holding and eradicating the effects
of Din-I- Ilahi of Akbar have been discussed in the fourth
z w
chapter, A brief survey of the total reforms done by the
Mujaddid is given in the fifth chapter, and the chapter sixth
s h includes some views of the great Mujaddid pertaining to his
revivalist movement. In the conclusion, the position of Shaikh
sh y-i Ahmad Sirhindi and the impact of his reformative movements
have been assessed.
-------- o--------
s
Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi (Rh.) & his Reforms 9 10 Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi (Rh.) & his Reforms
Table of contents Akbar and the Free-thinkers 107
Acknowledgement 4 Akbar and the Rajputs 111
Table of Transliteration 5 Akbar, the inventor of Din- I- Ilahi 112
Introduction 6 Akbar's Religious Ideas and Practices 113
Table of contents 7 Din- I- IIahi : a dangerous turning-Point in the
history of Muslim India. 119
Chapter I : BACKGROUND 9-21
The Social, Political and Religious Conditions of India Chapter V : SHAIKH AHMAD`S REFORMS 122-156
during 10th And 11th Centuries. 9 Beginning of Shaikh Ahmsd`s Reformative Effort 122
Letter to Shaikh Farid 128
Chapter II : BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF SHAIKH AHMAD22-35 Letter to Khan i Azam 132
Letter to Khan i Jahan 134
Chapter III : THE CONCEPTION OF MUJADDID IN ISLAM, Letter to Khan i Khanan 134
WITH SPECIAL RERERENCE TO MUJADDID Letter to Lala Beg 135
ALF THANI (r.) 36-68 Letter to Sadr Jahan 136
(a) Mujaddids in Islam 36 Jahangir and the Mujaddid 138
(b) Some great Mujddids of Islam and their Internment in the Gwalior Fort and its effects 142
achievements: 42 Letter to Mir Muhammad Nu'man 144
Umar bin 'Abdul 'Aziz 42 Letter to Shaikh Badi uddin 144
The Four Imams 44 After the release from Gwalior Fort 146
Imam Attahawi 46 A silent Revolution 147
Imam Almaturidi 47 The Core of Shaikh Ahmad`s Reforms 151
Imam Alash Ari 50 Regaining India for Islam 152
Imam Alghazali 52 Tariqa is Sub servient to Shari'a 153
'Abdul Qadir Jilani 56 Wahdatus Shuhud as alternative theory to
Imam Ibn Taimiyya 59 Wahdatul Wujud. 153
Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi 62 Trust in Nabuwat Muhammadi (s.) 154

Chapter IV : DIN- I- ILAHI OF AKBAR AND Chapter VI : HIS VIEWS:- 157-183
MUJADDID ALF THANI 69-121 On Knowledge 157
Akbar`s rule: The first phase 69 On Prophethood 166
The Second Phase 73 Prophethood and Sainthood 169
Akbar and the World-seeking "UIama 74 On Tawhid 174
Akbar and imposter Sufis 82 On Bid`a 178
Akbar, Shaikh Mubarak and his sons 86 CONCLUSION 181
Mahdar Nama 87 Appendices : Appendix- A 184
Akbar and the Hindus 94 Appendix - B 186
Akbar and the Jains 101 Appendix-C 190
Akbar and the persis 102 Bibliography 195
Akbar and the Christians 103 ------- o-------
Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi (Rh.) & his Reforms 11 12 Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi (Rh.) & his Reforms

CHAPTER- I

BACKGROUND

The Social, Political and Religious Conditions of India
during 10th and 11th Centuries.

10th and 11th/16th and 17th Centuries history of the sub-
continent reflects a chequered Phenomena of Political, Social
and Religious conditions of the Muslims. Amidst these,
Mujaddid Alf Thani Played an enduring role against the
heterogeneous onslaughts to the very faith of Islam. Before we
discuss the movement and reforms of the Mujaddid, we give
below a brief survey of political, Social and Religious
conditions of the then India.
Mujaddid Alf Thani was born during the Mughal rule in
India. The preceding Muslim rule of Tughlaq, Sayyid and
Lodhi dyunasties prepared a plea for a foreign invasion. Babur,
1483-1530 A.D., the founder of the Mughal dynasty, took full
advantage of that prevail conditions. Weak Central authority,
selfish design of the chieftains, palace intrigues and treachery
of the nobles paved the way of founding Mughal rule in India.
After the death of Sultan Firuz Shah Tughlaq, 1388 A.D,
the Central Government of Delhi became very weak. The
successors of Firuz Shah Tughlaq were incompetent. They
were mere puppets in the hands of unscrupulous nobles, whose
selfish intrigues largely fomented civil wars among rival
claimants to the throne of Delhi.1
In such chaotic condition of the kingdom of Delhi, Amir
Taimur of Central Asia invaded India (1398-99 A.D.) and
brutally massacred Delhi. Afrer halting at Delhi for fifteen days,
Taimur left India in 1399 A.D., and appointed Khizr Khan

1 c.f. Majumder, R. C., An Advanced history of India. P.327.
Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi (Rh.) & his Reforms 13 14 Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi (Rh.) & his Reforms
Sayyid to the Government of Multan, Lahore and Dipalpur.2 In only after four years' (1526-30 A.D.) ruling over India, Babur
short, Taimur completed the dissolution of the Tughlaq died on the 26th December, 1530 A.D.
kingdom. Babur occupies an important place in the history of India,
Taking opportunity of the weak Central Government, Khizr as he was the first architect to lay the foundation of the edifice
Khan defeated Daulat Khan (1414 A.D.), the last ruler of of the great Mughal Empire in India.
Tughlaq dynasty and ascended the throne of Delhi as a Sultan. After the death of Babur, his son Humayoun ascended the
Thus, the dynasty founded by Ghiyashuddin Tughlaq (1325 throne of India in 1530 A.D. at the age of twenty three. But he
A.D.), came to an end. was confronted with several hostile forces on all sides.
Khizr Khan and his weak successors ruled over India only Babur`s victory at Panipath and Gogra did not result in the
for name for 37 years 1414-1451 A.D. The last ruler of Sayyid complete annihilation of the Afgan chiefs. They organized
dynasty Alauddin Alam Shah was more inefficient than his themselves under the leadership of Sher Shah (1472-1545
father. He made over the throne of Delhi to Bahlul Lodhl in A.D.), who, ousting the newly established Mughal authority,
1451 A.D. established a glorious, though short, regime in India.4
As a ruler, Bahlul Lodhi was incomparably superior to Sher Shah defeated Humayun in the battle of Kanuaj in
those who had preceded him on the throne of Delhi Since the 1540 A.D. and Humayun managed to escape. Thus the
time of Firuj Shah Tughlaq (1388 A.D.), Being possessed of sovereignty of India once again passed to the Afghans. Sher
courage, energy and tact, he restored the prestige of the Muslim Shah, a brilliant architect of administrative system, ruled over
Power in India. After Bahlul`s death, (1489 A.D.) his second India for five years (1540-45 A.D.) and from an accident died
son Sikandar Shah became the king. He was undoubtedly the in 1545 A.D.5
ablest of the three rulers of this dynasty. The last Sultan of this
Humayun had to lead the life of a wanderer for about
dynasty was Ibrahim Lodhi. During his nine years reign (1517-
fifteen years (1540-55 A.D.), After that, he got an excellent
1526 A.D.), India was distracted by the ambitions, dis-
opportunity to reconquer India, due to civil wars among the
affections and rivalries of the nobles. The delhi Sultanate
Surs. He defeated Sikandar Sur in a battle near Sirhind in 1555
existed only in name. Daulat Khan, a most powerful noble and A.D. and captured Lahore.6
Alam Khan, an uncle of Ibrahim Lodhi, invited Babur to
Thus, by a favourable turn of fortune, Humayun succeeded
invade India.
in recovering a part of his lost kingdom. But he did not live
Babur, the descendant of Taimur, took this opportunity and
long to enjoy the fruit of his victory. He died on the 24th
proceeded against Ibrahim Lodhi and defeated him in the
January 1556 A.D. at Delhi.
historic field of Panipath, on the 21st April, 1526 A.D.

Babur quickly occupied Delhi and Agra. Thus, the battle of success in other parts of the world. Constantinople had been captured by the
Panipath marked the foundation of Mughal dominion in India.3 Turks in 1453 A.D., Sulaiman, the magnificent (1520-1566) extended the
authority of the Turkish Empire over South- eastern Europe; and in Persia,
Ismail Safavi (1500-1524) laid the foundation of the Safavi Empire. (See,
2 c f. Majumder, R.C : op. cit., P 328. Majumder, R,C. op. cit. p. 418, foot note).
3 The establishment of the Mughal dominion in India can very well be 4 c.f. Majumder. B. C. op. cit. p. 428.
regarded as an event in Islamic and world history in the sense that it meant a 5 Ibid. P. 432.
fresh triumph for Islam in India, at a time when its followers were gaining 6 Ibid. P. 438
Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi (Rh.) & his Reforms 15 16 Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi (Rh.) & his Reforms
Akbar, the son of Humayun, was then in the Punjab with to establish self and Hindu supremacy over India, Himu met
his guardian Bairam Khan. He was formally proclaimed as the Akbar and Bairam Khan at the historic field of Panipath in
successor of Humayun and ascended the throne of Delhi at the 1556 A.D. with a large army, but he was defeated, captured
age of thirteen in 1556 A.D.7 and put to death.
At the time when he ascended the throne a terrible famine The result of the second battle of Panipath was decisive. It
broke out all over the country. Each of the independent brought to a close the Afghan- Mughal contest for supremacy
Kingdom in different parts of India was contending for power.8. in India, by giving a verdict in favour of the latter. The victors
Humayun, before his death, recovered only a small fragment of soon occupied Delhi and Agra.Sikandar Sur surrendered
his lost territories in India. The Surs were still in occupation of himself to them in May, 1557 A.D. and was granted a fief in
the greater portion of Sher Shah`s dominion. The country from the eastern provinces, whence he was soon expelled by Akbar
Agra to Malwa, and of Jounpur, owed the sovereignty of Adil and died as a fugitive in Bengal (1558-59 A.D.).
Shah, from Delhi to the smaller Rohtas on the road to Kabul Muhammad 'Adil died in 1556 A.D. fighting at Monghyr
was in the Possession of Shah Sikandar and from the borders of against the Governor of Bengal. Ibrahim Sur, after wandering
the hills to the boundaries of Gujrat was in the hands of from Place to Place, found asylum in Orissa, where he was
Ibrahim Khan.9 To become a real king of India and to win back killed about ten years later (1567-68 A.D.). Thus, there
his father`s lost dominions, Akbar had to prove himself remained no Sur rival to contest Akbar`s claim to the
superior to the rival claimants to the throne.10 sovereignty over India. The later anti-Mughal Afghan risings,
As for the claims to the supremacy of India, there was during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, were more or
nothing to choose between Akbar and the representatives of less too scattdered and to be a serious threat to the Mughal
Sher shah, but only the sword. Thus, Akbar`s heritage was of a superiority.
precarious nature, and his task of building up an Empire in the So, it is evident that, after the death of Firuz Shah Tughlaq
then India was indeed a very difficult one. Soon after Akbbar`s to he accession of Akbar to the throne of Delhi (1388-1556
accession, Himu, the capable general and minister of 'Adil A.D.), the long period of one hundred and sixty eight years of
Shah Sur, came forward to oppose the Mughals. He first Muslim rule in India, there was no strong central Government
occupied Agra and Delhi by defeating Tardi Beg, the Mughal except the twenty eight years rule of Sikandar Shah (1489-
Governor of Delhi, who was put todeath under the order of 1517 A.D.). India was then distracted by the ambitions, palace
Bairam khan for his failure to defend Delhi. Having assumed intirgue, disaffection and rivalries of the nobles, and the Delhi
the title Raja Vicramajit or Vicromaditya,11 with the intention Sultanate existed in name only.
So, in short, the then India presents a dark as well as a

complex picture in all respects-Social, Political and Religious.
7 cf. I. P. A Short Histry of Muslim Rule in India, P. 252.
8 c.f. I. P., op.cit. P. 252 During this time no great spiritual personality like Khawaja
9 c.f. Majumder, R. C., op. cit., P. 438. Moinuddin Chisti Ajmiri (r.) (536-633 A. H.) And Khawaja
10 c.f Smith, V. A. : Akbar the Great Mughal, P. 23.
Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki (r.) (505-633 A.H.), was born in
11 "Himu assumed the title of Raja Vikramajit or Vicromaditya which had
India, who could guide them to the right path. No outstanding
been borne by several of the most renowned Hindu monarchs in ancient
times, and so entered the field as a competitor for the throne of Hindustan religious reformer was also born like Mujaddid Alf Thani (r.)
against both Akbar and Sikandar Sur." (See, V.A. Smith: op. cit. P. 28)
Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi (Rh.) & his Reforms 17 18 Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi (Rh.) & his Reforms
(1561-1624 A.D.) and Shah Waliullah Muhaddith Dehlavi (r.) As a matter of fact, famous Muslim scholars and saints
(1703-1763 A.D.), who could awaken the Muslim nation from lived and laboured in India during the medieval period, and
their slumber. they helped the dissemination of the ideas of Islamic
In fact, in most cases Sharia was subservient to alien Philosophy and mysticism in this Land. The wholesome spirit
culture, Specially to Hindu culture. The renowned 'Alims of of mutual toleration found expression in the growing
this period like Malik Muhammad jaysi, Rizqullah Mushtaqi, veneration of the Hindus for the Muslim shints and a
Mian Taha and Muhammad Gaoth Goaliary were famous for corresponding Muslim practice of respection the Hindu
their attainment in Hindu culture, but not in the Islamic saints.15
Sharia.12 It was out of the spirit for mutual understanding that
The famous books written at that time, like waqe 'ati Sanskrit Hindu religious literature was studied and translated
Mushtaqi Afsana-i-Shahan and Tarikh i Dawudi present a vivid the Muslim courts like those of Zainul Abedin in Kashmir and
picture of misguidance and immorality of the Muslim society Hussain Shah in Bengal. Further, Muslim courts and Muslim
of the then India.13 preachers and saints were attracted to the study of Hindu
Philosophy like Yoga and Vedanta and the sciences of
For this social and moral degradation of the Muslims of the
medicine and astrology. The Hindu astronomers similarly
then India, there was a far-reaching effects behind it, as history
borrowed from the Muslims technical terms, the Muslim
reflects:
calculation of latitudes and longitudes, some items of the
So great was the assimilative capability of the old Indian
calander and a branch of horoscopy-called Tajik, and in
civilization that the earlier invaders of this country- the Greeks,
medicine the Knowledge of metallic acids etc.
the Sakas and the Huns were absorbed within the fold of her
Some Muslim writers also wrote Hindu life and tradition,
population and completely lost their identity. But it did not
happen so with the Turku-Afghan invaders of India.14 as Malik Muhammad Jaysi did on Padmini, and also Hindu
writers wrote in the Persian language on Muslim Iiterary
In the wake of Muslim invasions, definite social and
traditions, as Rai-Bhana Man did in his chronicles.
religious ideas, which differed fundamentally from those of
The spirit of harmony and co-operation was not absent in
India, entered into this country and a total absorption of the
the political field also. Besides retaining, out of the necessity.
invaders by the original inhabitants could not be possible. The
political relations between the new-comers and the local people The existing machinery of local administration- the local
were sometimes characterised by bitter strife. But whenever headmen and accountants of the villages, the Muslim state
two types of civilization came into close contact with each employed a large number of Hindus, who became prominent in
other for centuries, both were bound to be influenced mutually. different branches of administration.
Though these official appointments had been due mainly to
the political necessity, yet there can be no doubt that they
12 (a) Khaliq Ahmad Nizami : Salatini Dehli ka Madhahibi facilitated the growth of harmoy between the Hindus and
Rujhanat, P. 451.
Muslims.
(b) Md. Aslam: Din-i-Ilahi Aur Uska Pasmanzar, P. 26.
13 (a) cf. Khaliq Ahmad Nizami; op. cit. p. 451
(b) cf. Md. Aslam; op cit., P, 26.
14 cf. Majumder, R.C.; op. cit., p. 394. 15 cf. Majumder, R.C.; op, cit. p. 394.
Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi (Rh.) & his Reforms 19 20 Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi (Rh.) & his Reforms
In fact, in different aspects of life arts and crafts, music and him many disciples and among them Kabir became very
painting, in dress and costume, in games and spkorts this prominent.
assimilation between two communities had progressed so much Kabir made the most earnest efforts to foster a spirit of
that when Babur came to India, he was compelled to notice harmony between Hinduism and Islam. His life is covered with
their peculiar way of life.16 a good deal of obscurity, and the date of his birth is uncertain.23
The democratic principles of Islam made their way into the He flourished either towads the coose of the fourteenth century
social and religious system of the Hindus leading to the rise of or in the first quarter of the fifteenth century. He was born of a
liberal religious movements like Bhakti cult and so on. Brahman widow, who left him on the side of a tank of Benaras
Ramanuja was the founder of Bhakti cult. He was born at and was then found and brought up by a Muslim weaver and
Sri Prembudr, 26 miles away from Madras; in the first half of his wife.24
the beginning of the 12th century A.D.17 In contrast with other Kabir did not believe in the efficacy of ritual or external
Hindus, Ramanuja was a monotheist and in his religious formalities, either of Hinduism or of Islam; to him the true
teachings, he emphasided on the oneness of God.18 Ramanuja means of salvation was Bhajan or devotional worship, together
explained Gita19 in his own way, leaving aside the general with the freedom of the soul from all hypocrisy, Insincerity,
polytheistic view of the Hindus. sham and cruelty.25
Ramanuja`s missionary activities greatly influenced the Kabir preached such a religion the foundation of which was
lower cast Hindu, who leaving polytheism accepted based on mutual love and unity, leaving aside mutual
monotheistic view.20 Ramanuja passed greater portion of his insincerity, hypocrisy and cruelty.26 He was the first man of
life for his missionary activities in South India and his mission India, who, made earnest efforts to foster a spirit of harmony
was preached to Northern India by Ramanand, a great disciple between the two great civilizations- Hinduism and Islam.
of him. Ramanand was the real founder of the Bhakti cult.21 Those who worked for Hindu Muslim unity in India were
Ramanand was born at prag in 1400 A.D., but he left greatly influenced by Kabir`s teachings. 27 In fact, Kabir
almost all his life at Benaras. He was against cast system and preached a religion of live, which promoted unity amongst all
he dedicated his life for the betterment of the lower class classes and creeds.28
people of the Hindu socity of India.22 Ramanand left behind Inspite of being neither Hindu nor Muslim Kabir held
monotheistic view.29 Sultan Sikandar Lodhi (D. 1517 A.D.)

16 cf. Majumoer, R. C.; op. cit., 394, 396.
17 cf. Sree Nawas Aengar : The teachings of Sree Ramahuja Achariya, P. 45. 23 See. Majumder, R. C.; op. (Foot note). For different opinions vide Tara-
18 Ibid. PP. 263, 275. Chand; Influence of Islam on Indian Civilization, PP. 146-47; According to
19 Regarding the Hinu religious book Gita, various Muslim scholars Macauliffe and Bhandakar 1398 A.D. is the date of his birth, but according
expressed thir good views, Eminent Muslim scholar shah abdul Aziz to west coff, Farquhar, Burns and other is 1400 A.D.
Dehlavi (r.) says: The study of Gita indicates that its author Sree Krishna 24 cf. Sarma, D. S.; op. Cit., P. 52.
Chandea was one of the Awliya of Allah. (Rud- e-Kowthar. Sk Muhammad 25 cf. Majumder, R. C. op. cit., P. 399.
Ikram, P. 569,) 26 cf. Tara Chand, Dr.; op. cit., PP. 150,163.
20 cf. Sarma, D.S: The Renaissance of Hinduism, P. 41. 27 cf. Qanungo, K. R. : Dara Shikwah, P. 336.
21 cf. Farquhar, J, N. : Out line of the Religious Literature of India. P. 325. 28 cf. Majumder, R. C.; op. cit., 398.
22 cf. Tara Chand, Dr. : The influence of Islam on Indian Culture, P.143. 29 cf. Abul Fadl : Ain I Akbari, P. 145.