Sexualisation of Girls in Music Videos and Girls' Magazine Advertisements

318 Pages·2014·1.79 MB·English

Sexualisation of Girls in Music Videos and Girls’ Magazine Advertisements:
Prevalence and Consequences
by
Megan Vokey, MA

A Thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies of
The University of Manitoba
In partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Psychology
University of Manitoba
Winnipeg

Copyright ©2014 by Megan Vokey
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Abstract

Sexualisation occurs when (a) a person’s value comes only from his or her sexual appeal or
behaviours to the exclusion of other characteristics; (b) a person is held to a standard that equates
physical attractiveness (narrowly defined) with being sexy; (c) a person is sexually objectified
(made into a thing for sexual use by others) rather than seen as a person capable of independent
action and decision making; and/or (d) sexuality is inappropriately imposed on someone (e.g.,
children) (American Psychological Association, 2007). The mass media is one of the most
prolific transmitters of sexualised cultural messages. In 2007, the American Psychological
Association (APA) created a taskforce concerning the sexualisation of girls in response to
concerns that their sexualisation has become a broad and increasing practice in our culture and is
harmful to them. The taskforce found conclusive evidence that, regardless of media genre (e.g.,
magazines, television), women are routinely sexualised. However, APA reported that few studies
have examined the prevalence of sexualisation of girls in the media. Research has shown
sexualisation to have multiple negative effects on women, including (a) decreased mental and
sexual health (e.g., body image, self-esteem, depression, eating disorders, unsafe sexual
practices) and (b) harmful societal attitudes and beliefs (e.g., gender stereotypes, acceptance of
violence). However, research examining the influence of sexualisation on girls is less well
developed and, therefore, inconclusive. Nonetheless, results concerning women may well
generalize to girls. From the standpoint of developmental theory, girls may be even more
affected than women by sexualised portrayals in the media because their identity and sense of
self (i.e., self-esteem) are still being formed. The purpose of this research was to (a) assess the
frequency with which girls are sexualised in two influential types of media; (b) determine if such
sexualisation has increased over time; and (c) explore directly with girls the consequences of
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viewing sexualised images on them. First, quantitative content analysis of magazine
advertisements and music videos was conducted to assess the prevalence of sexualisation of girls
from 1992-2008 and to determine if a higher proportion of images of girls (i.e., females under
the age of 18) in girls’ magazine advertisements and music videos have been sexualised in recent
years than in previous years. The content analysis data was analyzed using proportion and chi-
square analyses. Second, focus groups were held with girls in grade 6, 9, and 12 to qualitatively
assess how they make meaning of, and are influenced by, sexualised media messages involving
girls. Focus group data was thematically analyzed. The quantitative data shows how intensely
girls are being targeted. Overall, in magazine advertisements from 1992-1998, 64% of teenagers
and 24% of children were sexualised. Comparatively, in music videos, 53% of teenagers and
13% of children were sexualised. Chi-square analyses indicated that the proportion of sexualised
girls in both Seventeen magazine and music videos has increased from 1992-2008. The
qualitative data shows how girls understand and respond to being targeted in this way. Girls
across grades indicated that they are very aware of being immersed in media that sexualizes girls.
They reported that exposure to this media makes them feel negatively about themselves and that
they feel pressured to imitate it, both in terms of altering their appearance (e.g., to resemble the
sexualised females) and their behaviour (e.g., sexual behaviour with boys). Together these two
studies indicate that there is evidence to be concerned with the increasing prevalence of
sexualised girls in the media and the negative effect this may have on adolescent girls. The
results indicate that prevention efforts may well be needed to help girls mitigate the potential
negative effects and shed light on the mechanisms of influence that should be diminished (when
negative) or strengthened (when positive).
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... ii
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................ vii
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................. x
Sexualisation of Girls in Music Videos and Girls’ Magazine Advertisements:
Prevalence and Consequences ..................................................................................................... 1
Conceptualization of Sexualisation of Girls ............................................................................................. 2
Purpose of the Current Research .............................................................................................................. 8
Prevalence of Sexualisation of Girls in the Mass Media ........................................................................ 10
Psychological Consequences of Media Sexualisation for Girls ............................................................. 25
Psychological Mechanisms of Influence: Theory ................................................................................... 32
Consequences of Media Sexualisation of Girls: Empirical Evidence .................................................... 37
Present Research ..................................................................................................................................... 53
Study 1: Quantitative Content Analysis ................................................................................... 55
Research Questions................................................................................................................................. 55
Hypotheses ............................................................................................................................................. 56
Method .................................................................................................................................................... 57
Content Analysis..................................................................................................................................... 57
Units of Analysis .................................................................................................................................... 59
Coders ..................................................................................................................................................... 63
Coding Instrument .................................................................................................................................. 64
Procedures for Training Coders and Fine-Tuning Instrument ................................................................ 65
Reliability ............................................................................................................................................... 69
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Results Regarding Quantitative Content Analysis of Magazine Advertisements .................................. 71
Descriptive Statistics Concerning Social-demographic Characteristics of Females in Magazine
Advertisements ....................................................................................................................................... 71
Descriptive Statistics Concerning Sexualisation of Females in Magazine Advertisements ................... 75
Results Regarding Hypotheses Concerning Sexualisation of Females in Magazine Advertisements. ... 77
Data Management ................................................................................................................................... 77
Descriptive Statistics Concerning Socio-demographic Characteristics of Females in Music Videos .... 90
Descriptive Statistics Concerning Sexualisation of Females in Music Videos ...................................... 94
Results Regarding Hypotheses Concerning Sexualisation of Females in Music Videos ....................... 96
Study 2: Focus Groups ............................................................................................................. 107
Research Questions............................................................................................................................... 107
Methodology ......................................................................................................................................... 109
Justification of Choice to Use Focus Groups ....................................................................................... 109
Social Constructivist Paradigm ............................................................................................................ 110
Recruitment Strategy ............................................................................................................................ 111
Focus Group Design ............................................................................................................................. 113
Focus Group Composition .................................................................................................................... 114
Number of Focus Groups ..................................................................................................................... 115
Focus Group Size.................................................................................................................................. 116
Setting ................................................................................................................................................... 116
Materials ............................................................................................................................................... 117
Pilot Group ........................................................................................................................................... 121
Procedure .............................................................................................................................................. 122
Data Analysis Strategy ......................................................................................................................... 125
The Classic Method for Focus Group Analysis: Steps ......................................................................... 127
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Results: Focus Group Analysis ............................................................................................................. 131
Pre-Focus Group Questionnaire ........................................................................................................... 131
Focus Groups Thematic Analysis Results: Description of the Groups ................................................ 142
Thematic Analysis Results ................................................................................................................... 146
Key of Transcription Codes .................................................................................................................. 146
Detailed Thematic Analysis Results ..................................................................................................... 147
Summary of Thematic Analysis Results ............................................................................................... 216
Post-Focus Group Questionnaire Results ............................................................................................. 223
Reliability and Validity ........................................................................................................................ 237
Discussion................................................................................................................................... 244
Quantitative Content Analyses ............................................................................................................. 244
Focus Groups ........................................................................................................................................ 254
Implications for Prevention and Health Promotion .............................................................................. 269
Limitations…………………………………………………………………………………...275

Strengths……………………………………………………………………………………..280

Future Directions…………………………………………………………………………….281

Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 285
References .................................................................................................................................. 287
Appendices ................................................................................................................................. 300
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List of Tables

Table 1. Number of Magazine Ads and Females Coded by Year.…………………….………...60

Table 2. Number of Music Videos and Females Coded by Year.……………………….……....62
Table 3. Reliability Statistics (Kappa Levels) for Coding of Magazine Advertisements
and Music Videos……….………..…………...………………………………………..70
Table 4. Proportion of Females by Time Period and Age in Magazine Advertisements..............73

Table 5. Proportion of Females by Time Period and Ethnicity in Magazine Advertisements......74

Table 6. Proportion of Sexualised Females by Age and Time Period in Seventeen Magazine

Advertisements………………………...……………………………...………………..76

Table 7. Chi-Square Tests Comparing Proportion of Sexualised Females by Age and Time
Period in Magazine Advertisements…...…………….……………………………..…..79
Table 8. Proportions of Sexualised Females by Ethnicity, Time Period, and Age in
Magazine Advertisments…...……………….………….……………..………………..81
Table 9. Chi-Square Tests Comparing Proportion of Females by Age, Ethnicity, and Time
Period in Magazine Advertisements……....……………………………………………82
Table 10. Chi-Square Tests Comparing Proportion of Strongly Sexualised Females by Age
and Time Period in Magazine Advertisements…..………………...……………..…...84
Table 11. Proportions of Strongly Sexualised Females by Time Period, Age, and Ethnicity in
Magazine Advertisements...….…………………………………………...……….…..86
Table 12. Chi-Square Tests Comparing Proportion of Strongly Sexualised Females by

Ethnicity, Age, and Time Period in Magazine Advertisements..…….....…….…….....87

Table 13. Proportion of Sexualised of Females by Ethnicity, Age, and Strength of
Sexualisation in Magazine Advertisements….…………...…………………………...89
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Table 14. Chi-Square Tests Comparing Proportion of Sexualised Females by Ethnicity in
Magazine Advertisements…….………….…………...………………...……………..91
Table 15. Proportion of Females by Time Period and Age in Music Videos……...…..………...92

Table 16. Proportion of Females by Time Period and Ethnicity in Music Videos....…………....93

Table 17. Proportion of Sexualised Females by Age and Time Period in Music Videos…….....95

Table 18.Chi-Square Tests Comparing Proportion of Sexualised Females by Age and Time
Period in Music Videos……………..……….…………………………………………97
Table 19. Proportion of Sexualised Females Ethnicity, Age, and Time Period in Music

Videos……...….………………………………………………………………………99

Table 20. Chi-Square Tests Comparing Proportion of Sexualised Females by Age,

Ethnicity, and Time Period in Music Videos………………………..……………….100

Table 21. Chi-Square Tests Comparing Proportion of Strongly Sexualised Females by

Age in Music Videos………………………………………………………………...102

Table 22. Proportion of Strongly Sexualised Females by Time Period, Ethnicity,

and Age in Music Videos……………………………………………………………103

Table 23. Chi-Square Tests Comparing Proportion of Strongly Females by Ethnicity,

Age, and Time Period in Music Videos……...……………………………................105

Table 24. Proportion of Sexualised Females by Ethnicity, Age, and Strength of

Sexualisation in Music Videos….….………………………………………………..106

Table 25. Chi-Square Tests Comparing Proportion of Sexualised Females by Age and

Ethnicity in Music Videos...........................................................................................108

Table 26. Descriptive Statistics for the Pre-Focus Group Questionnaire....................................132
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Table 27. One-Way ANOVA Comparing Girls’ Pre-Focus Group Questionnaire
Responses by Grade………....………………………………………………………139
Table 28. Post-Hoc Scheffe Test Multiple Comparison Results.................................................141
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List of Figures

Figure 1: An Ecological Framework of Sexualisation of Girls …………………………………27

Figure 2: Diagram of Connections Between Themes Identified in the Focus Group Study…...224