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Sexualisation of Girls in Music Videos and Girls' Magazine Advertisements PDF

318 Pages·2014·1.79 MB·English
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Sexualisation of Girls in Music Videos and Girls’ Magazine Advertisements: Prevalence and Consequences by Megan Vokey, MA A Thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies of The University of Manitoba In partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Psychology University of Manitoba Winnipeg Copyright ©2014 by Megan Vokey ii Abstract Sexualisation occurs when (a) a person’s value comes only from his or her sexual appeal or behaviours to the exclusion of other characteristics; (b) a person is held to a standard that equates physical attractiveness (narrowly defined) with being sexy; (c) a person is sexually objectified (made into a thing for sexual use by others) rather than seen as a person capable of independent action and decision making; and/or (d) sexuality is inappropriately imposed on someone (e.g., children) (American Psychological Association, 2007). The mass media is one of the most prolific transmitters of sexualised cultural messages. In 2007, the American Psychological Association (APA) created a taskforce concerning the sexualisation of girls in response to concerns that their sexualisation has become a broad and increasing practice in our culture and is harmful to them. The taskforce found conclusive evidence that, regardless of media genre (e.g., magazines, television), women are routinely sexualised. However, APA reported that few studies have examined the prevalence of sexualisation of girls in the media. Research has shown sexualisation to have multiple negative effects on women, including (a) decreased mental and sexual health (e.g., body image, self-esteem, depression, eating disorders, unsafe sexual practices) and (b) harmful societal attitudes and beliefs (e.g., gender stereotypes, acceptance of violence). However, research examining the influence of sexualisation on girls is less well developed and, therefore, inconclusive. Nonetheless, results concerning women may well generalize to girls. From the standpoint of developmental theory, girls may be even more affected than women by sexualised portrayals in the media because their identity and sense of self (i.e., self-esteem) are still being formed. The purpose of this research was to (a) assess the frequency with which girls are sexualised in two influential types of media; (b) determine if such sexualisation has increased over time; and (c) explore directly with girls the consequences of iii viewing sexualised images on them. First, quantitative content analysis of magazine advertisements and music videos was conducted to assess the prevalence of sexualisation of girls from 1992-2008 and to determine if a higher proportion of images of girls (i.e., females under the age of 18) in girls’ magazine advertisements and music videos have been sexualised in recent years than in previous years. The content analysis data was analyzed using proportion and chi- square analyses. Second, focus groups were held with girls in grade 6, 9, and 12 to qualitatively assess how they make meaning of, and are influenced by, sexualised media messages involving girls. Focus group data was thematically analyzed. The quantitative data shows how intensely girls are being targeted. Overall, in magazine advertisements from 1992-1998, 64% of teenagers and 24% of children were sexualised. Comparatively, in music videos, 53% of teenagers and 13% of children were sexualised. Chi-square analyses indicated that the proportion of sexualised girls in both Seventeen magazine and music videos has increased from 1992-2008. The qualitative data shows how girls understand and respond to being targeted in this way. Girls across grades indicated that they are very aware of being immersed in media that sexualizes girls. They reported that exposure to this media makes them feel negatively about themselves and that they feel pressured to imitate it, both in terms of altering their appearance (e.g., to resemble the sexualised females) and their behaviour (e.g., sexual behaviour with boys). Together these two studies indicate that there is evidence to be concerned with the increasing prevalence of sexualised girls in the media and the negative effect this may have on adolescent girls. The results indicate that prevention efforts may well be needed to help girls mitigate the potential negative effects and shed light on the mechanisms of influence that should be diminished (when negative) or strengthened (when positive). iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... ii List of Tables ................................................................................................................................ vii List of Figures ................................................................................................................................. x Sexualisation of Girls in Music Videos and Girls’ Magazine Advertisements: Prevalence and Consequences ..................................................................................................... 1 Conceptualization of Sexualisation of Girls ............................................................................................. 2 Purpose of the Current Research .............................................................................................................. 8 Prevalence of Sexualisation of Girls in the Mass Media ........................................................................ 10 Psychological Consequences of Media Sexualisation for Girls ............................................................. 25 Psychological Mechanisms of Influence: Theory ................................................................................... 32 Consequences of Media Sexualisation of Girls: Empirical Evidence .................................................... 37 Present Research ..................................................................................................................................... 53 Study 1: Quantitative Content Analysis ................................................................................... 55 Research Questions................................................................................................................................. 55 Hypotheses ............................................................................................................................................. 56 Method .................................................................................................................................................... 57 Content Analysis..................................................................................................................................... 57 Units of Analysis .................................................................................................................................... 59 Coders ..................................................................................................................................................... 63 Coding Instrument .................................................................................................................................. 64 Procedures for Training Coders and Fine-Tuning Instrument ................................................................ 65 Reliability ............................................................................................................................................... 69 v Results Regarding Quantitative Content Analysis of Magazine Advertisements .................................. 71 Descriptive Statistics Concerning Social-demographic Characteristics of Females in Magazine Advertisements ....................................................................................................................................... 71 Descriptive Statistics Concerning Sexualisation of Females in Magazine Advertisements ................... 75 Results Regarding Hypotheses Concerning Sexualisation of Females in Magazine Advertisements. ... 77 Data Management ................................................................................................................................... 77 Descriptive Statistics Concerning Socio-demographic Characteristics of Females in Music Videos .... 90 Descriptive Statistics Concerning Sexualisation of Females in Music Videos ...................................... 94 Results Regarding Hypotheses Concerning Sexualisation of Females in Music Videos ....................... 96 Study 2: Focus Groups ............................................................................................................. 107 Research Questions............................................................................................................................... 107 Methodology ......................................................................................................................................... 109 Justification of Choice to Use Focus Groups ....................................................................................... 109 Social Constructivist Paradigm ............................................................................................................ 110 Recruitment Strategy ............................................................................................................................ 111 Focus Group Design ............................................................................................................................. 113 Focus Group Composition .................................................................................................................... 114 Number of Focus Groups ..................................................................................................................... 115 Focus Group Size.................................................................................................................................. 116 Setting ................................................................................................................................................... 116 Materials ............................................................................................................................................... 117 Pilot Group ........................................................................................................................................... 121 Procedure .............................................................................................................................................. 122 Data Analysis Strategy ......................................................................................................................... 125 The Classic Method for Focus Group Analysis: Steps ......................................................................... 127 vi Results: Focus Group Analysis ............................................................................................................. 131 Pre-Focus Group Questionnaire ........................................................................................................... 131 Focus Groups Thematic Analysis Results: Description of the Groups ................................................ 142 Thematic Analysis Results ................................................................................................................... 146 Key of Transcription Codes .................................................................................................................. 146 Detailed Thematic Analysis Results ..................................................................................................... 147 Summary of Thematic Analysis Results ............................................................................................... 216 Post-Focus Group Questionnaire Results ............................................................................................. 223 Reliability and Validity ........................................................................................................................ 237 Discussion................................................................................................................................... 244 Quantitative Content Analyses ............................................................................................................. 244 Focus Groups ........................................................................................................................................ 254 Implications for Prevention and Health Promotion .............................................................................. 269 Limitations…………………………………………………………………………………...275 Strengths……………………………………………………………………………………..280 Future Directions…………………………………………………………………………….281 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 285 References .................................................................................................................................. 287 Appendices ................................................................................................................................. 300 vii List of Tables Table 1. Number of Magazine Ads and Females Coded by Year.…………………….………...60 Table 2. Number of Music Videos and Females Coded by Year.……………………….……....62 Table 3. Reliability Statistics (Kappa Levels) for Coding of Magazine Advertisements and Music Videos……….………..…………...………………………………………..70 Table 4. Proportion of Females by Time Period and Age in Magazine Advertisements..............73 Table 5. Proportion of Females by Time Period and Ethnicity in Magazine Advertisements......74 Table 6. Proportion of Sexualised Females by Age and Time Period in Seventeen Magazine Advertisements………………………...……………………………...………………..76 Table 7. Chi-Square Tests Comparing Proportion of Sexualised Females by Age and Time Period in Magazine Advertisements…...…………….……………………………..…..79 Table 8. Proportions of Sexualised Females by Ethnicity, Time Period, and Age in Magazine Advertisments…...……………….………….……………..………………..81 Table 9. Chi-Square Tests Comparing Proportion of Females by Age, Ethnicity, and Time Period in Magazine Advertisements……....……………………………………………82 Table 10. Chi-Square Tests Comparing Proportion of Strongly Sexualised Females by Age and Time Period in Magazine Advertisements…..………………...……………..…...84 Table 11. Proportions of Strongly Sexualised Females by Time Period, Age, and Ethnicity in Magazine Advertisements...….…………………………………………...……….…..86 Table 12. Chi-Square Tests Comparing Proportion of Strongly Sexualised Females by Ethnicity, Age, and Time Period in Magazine Advertisements..…….....…….…….....87 Table 13. Proportion of Sexualised of Females by Ethnicity, Age, and Strength of Sexualisation in Magazine Advertisements….…………...…………………………...89 viii Table 14. Chi-Square Tests Comparing Proportion of Sexualised Females by Ethnicity in Magazine Advertisements…….………….…………...………………...……………..91 Table 15. Proportion of Females by Time Period and Age in Music Videos……...…..………...92 Table 16. Proportion of Females by Time Period and Ethnicity in Music Videos....…………....93 Table 17. Proportion of Sexualised Females by Age and Time Period in Music Videos…….....95 Table 18.Chi-Square Tests Comparing Proportion of Sexualised Females by Age and Time Period in Music Videos……………..……….…………………………………………97 Table 19. Proportion of Sexualised Females Ethnicity, Age, and Time Period in Music Videos……...….………………………………………………………………………99 Table 20. Chi-Square Tests Comparing Proportion of Sexualised Females by Age, Ethnicity, and Time Period in Music Videos………………………..……………….100 Table 21. Chi-Square Tests Comparing Proportion of Strongly Sexualised Females by Age in Music Videos………………………………………………………………...102 Table 22. Proportion of Strongly Sexualised Females by Time Period, Ethnicity, and Age in Music Videos……………………………………………………………103 Table 23. Chi-Square Tests Comparing Proportion of Strongly Females by Ethnicity, Age, and Time Period in Music Videos……...……………………………................105 Table 24. Proportion of Sexualised Females by Ethnicity, Age, and Strength of Sexualisation in Music Videos….….………………………………………………..106 Table 25. Chi-Square Tests Comparing Proportion of Sexualised Females by Age and Ethnicity in Music Videos...........................................................................................108 Table 26. Descriptive Statistics for the Pre-Focus Group Questionnaire....................................132 ix Table 27. One-Way ANOVA Comparing Girls’ Pre-Focus Group Questionnaire Responses by Grade………....………………………………………………………139 Table 28. Post-Hoc Scheffe Test Multiple Comparison Results.................................................141 x List of Figures Figure 1: An Ecological Framework of Sexualisation of Girls …………………………………27 Figure 2: Diagram of Connections Between Themes Identified in the Focus Group Study…...224

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magazines, television), women are routinely sexualised. However have examined the prevalence of sexualisation of girls in the media. Research
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