settlement, land use and water management systems in roman arabia

420 Pages·2013·22.51 MB·English

SETTLEMENT, LAND USE AND WATER MANAGEMENT
SYSTEMS IN ROMAN ARABIA:
AN INTEGRATED ARCHAEOLOGICAL APPROACH
Thesis submitted for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
at the University of Leicester
by
Paul Graham Newson MA (London)
School of Archaeology and Ancient History
University of Leicester
June 2002
UMI Number: U169052
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Abstract
Settlement, Land Use and Water Management Systems in Roman
Arabia: an Integrated Archaeological Approach
School of Archaeology and Ancient History, Leicester
The aim of this thesis is to gain a greater understanding of water management systems, land use
and settlement patterns in Roman Arabia. Using an integrated approach, based on Geographical
Information Systems (GIS), archaeological data, historical sources, landscape and surface survey
this thesis explores the application of water management systems, particularly those technologies
used to capture and control floodwater. This information is then used to address some the major
issues and models which have been postulated to account for, or contribute to, the settlement of
marginal regions of the Levant during the Roman period. Many theories proposed in the recent
past have attempted to explain the development of these peripheral zones, and these range from
climate change, population increase, growth in trade and economy, through to imperialism and
Romanization. The first part of this thesis critically assesses the range of evidence on which many
key arguments have been constructed, and clearly shows that much of it is incomplete and/or
inadequate to explain such a complex phenomenon. Using the site of Wadi Faynan, Jordan, as a
case study, it has been demonstrated that the study of water management systems has provided a
great deal of information with which to understand the dynamics present in the occupation,
development and abandonment of marginal sites. Furthermore, an analysis of the regional evidence
has emphasized the regional diversity of Roman Arabia and the major factors affecting such
diversity. In particular, the innovative use of a GIS has provided a clear analytical tool with which
to model large amounts of complex data, and move towards exciting new interpretations and new
applications of such technology.
Key words: GIS, Water management, Roman, Arabia, Wadi Faynan, floodwater farming, marginal
settlement
Contents
List of Figures iv-vi
Acknowledgements vii-viii
1.0 Research issues 1-25
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Romanization, imperialism and water management in Roman Arabia 5
1.3 Applications of water management in the ancient world 8
1.4 Thesis approach 24
2.0 The geographical and historical context 26-71
2.1 Introduction 26
2.2 Physical geography 27
2.2.1 The mediterranean coastal plain 28
2.2.2 The mountain districts of Galilee, Samaria and Judaea 30
2.2.3 The Negev desert 31
2.2.4 The Sinai tablelands 31
2.2.5 The Sinai highlands 32
2.2.6 The northern Hijaz (Midian) 33
2.2.7 The northern Hijaz sandstone plateau 34
2.2.8 The central Jordanian limestone plateau 34
2.2.9 The Wadi Sirhan depression 36
2.2.10 The northern Harras 37
2.2.11 The volcanic Jebel al-Arab, the Hauran and the Golan 38
2.2.12 The ‘Ajlun highlands 39
2.2.13 The Wadi ‘Araba - River Jordan - RiftV alley 39
2.3 Climate 40
2.3.1 The winter synoptic cycle 40
2.3.2 The summer synoptic cycle 42
2.3.3 Precipitation 42
2.3.4 Summary 43
2.4 Geomorphology, soils, hydrology and vegetation 44
2.4.1 Summary 50
2.5 Climate and environmental change 51
2.5.1 Introduction 51
2.5.2 The evidence for climate and environment change in the Classical Levant 51
2.5.3 Summary 61
2.6 Historical context 62
2.6.1 Introduction 62
2.6.2 Historical sources 62
2.6.3 Provincial boundaries 65
i
Contents
2.6.4 Outline of provincial history 68
2.6.5 Summary 70
3.0 Settlement in Roman Arabia 72-106
3.1 Introduction 72
3.2 Survey coverage 73
3.3 The regional survey evidence 73
3.3.1 The northern Hijaz 73
3.3.2 Sinai 77
3.3.3 The Negev desert 79
3.3.4 The Hisma 80
3.3.5 The Wadi ‘Araba 81
3.3.6 The plateau of Edom, the Jibal and ‘Arabia Petraea’ 83
3.3.7 The Moab plateau 85
3.3.8 The southern Ghor 87
3.3.9 The Decapolis (cities and adjoining territories) 88
3.3.10 The Hauran and the Harra 90
3.3.11 The Wadi Sirhan 92
3.4 Settlement history 93
3.5 The survey record: strengths and weaknesses 100
3.5.1 Survey comparison: progress and limitations 100
3.5.2 Survey coverage 101
3.5.3 Survey limitations 102
3.6 Conclusion 105
4.0 The regional survey record: land use systems in Roman Arabia 107-151
4.1 Introduction 107
4.2 The Negev 109
4.3 The Hauran and the Harra 123
4.4 The plateau of Edom 134
4.5 The Wadi ‘Araba 144
4.6 Summary 150
5.0 The Wadi Faynan: a case study 152-186
5.1. Wadi Faynan as a case study: introduction 152
5.2 The Wadi Faynan Landscape Survey 157
5.2.1 Introduction 157
5.2.2 Water management structures 161
5.2.3 Field systems 164
5.2.4 Field system recording methodologies 164
5.2.5 Summary of results 170
5.3 GIS as a useful tool 175
5.3.1 Theory and limitations 175
5.3.2 Methodologies employed 177
5.4 Construction of a GIS 178
5.4.1 Introduction 178
5.4.2 Problems with the data set 179
5.4.3 Digitising the fields of WF4 180
5.4.4 Development of the field wall coverage 182
5.4.5 Construction of a DEM 185
5.4.6 Conclusion 186
Contents
6.0 The results of the GIS analysis 187-224
6.1 Introduction 187
6.2 Wall analyses 189
6.3 Pottery analyses 193
6.4 Fineware distribution patterns 202
6.5 Statistical analyses 207
6.6 Modelling the system 211
6.7 Conclusion 218
7.0 Water management systems in Roman Arabia: 225-253
environmental, economic and social contexts
7.1 Introduction 225
7.2 Wadi Faynan in context 226
7.3 Distribution of water management systems in the Levant 227
7.4 Chronologies of water management systems in the Levant 233
7.4.1 Introduction 233
7.4.2 Nabataean/Early Roman 233
7.4.3 Late Roman 236
7.4.4 Byzantine 238
7.4.5 Early Islamic 240
7.5 Settlement and water management systems: establishment and change 242
7.5.1 Introduction 242
7.5.2 Environmental restraints 242
7.5.3 Purpose: socio-political factors 244
7.5.4 Specific purposes 244
7.5.5 ‘Social’influences on sedentarization 246
7.6 Disintegration-demise: causes 250
7.7 Conclusion 252
8.0 Conclusion 254-267
8.1 Summary of progress 254
8.2 Settlement and water management in the southern Levant 258
8.3 Study implications 263
8.4 Future work 264
Appendices 268-278
Appendix 1 268
Appendix 2 289
Appendix 3 271
Appendix 4 272
Bibliography 279-312
Illustrations
Figures
1.1 The Bronze Age water management systems at Jawa, Jordan
1.2 Diagram of the irrigation systems at Wadi Marhah, Yemen
1.3 An aerial view of a qanat at Yotvata, Israel
1.4 Plan section of a typical qanat
1.5 The dam at Harbaqa, Syria
1.6 Diagram of the water management systems at Qasr el-Heir el-Gharbi, Syria
2.1 Map of the southern Levant
2.2 The topography of Sinai
2.3 The topographic regions of the southeastern Levant
2.4 Northwest Arabia
2.5 Topography of the southern Levant
2.6 Topography of the Wadi Sirhan and adjoining regions
2.7 Topography of the Harra and adjoining regions
2.8 The Jebel al-Arab region
2.9 Topography of the Wadi ‘Araba
2.10 Mean annual rainfall for the Levant
2.11 An outline of the development of the province of Arabia
3.1 Qurrayyah in the northern Hijaz
3.2 Major settlements of the Negev
3.3 The Byzantine period sites of the Sede Boqer, in the Negev, Israel
3.4 Settlement and water management systems at Humayma, southern Jordan
3.5 Major settlements of southern Transjordan
3.6 The region of the Wadi el-Hasa Survey
3.7 The region of the Southern Ghors Survey
3.8 The settlement sites of the Tell Hesban region in the early Roman period
3.9 The settlement sites of the Tell Hesban region in the late Roman period
3.10 The region of the southern Hauran
4.1 The settled regions of Jordan prior to deep-well drilling
4.2 The natural water resources of Jordan prior to deep-well drilling
4.3 Settlement patterns within the central Negev during the late Byzantine and early
Islamic periods
4.4 Plan of ‘Yorams’ farm, the Negev
4.5 Plan of ‘Yehudas’ farm, the Negev
4.6 Evenari’s survey of the Nahal Lavan field system
4.7 The Nahal Lavan field system as surveyed by Kedar
4.8 Cross-wadi wall systems, southeast of Umm el-Jimal, southern Hauran
4.9 The field system at ad-Diyatheh, Syria
4.10 The remains of the village of ad-Diyatheh
4.11 A cleared field and water channel in the ad-Diyatheh field system
4.12 The site of al-Nemara and associated field systems
4.13 The artificial lake at the site of Qasr Burqu’, Jordan
Figures
4.14 The main irrigation channel, al-Nemara, Syria
4.15 Irrigated fields of Wadi Ruseidah, Syria
4.16 Aerial photograph of the spring-fed fields of Udruh, southern Jordan
4.17 Schematic plan of the Byzantine field system at Jebel at-Tahuna, Jordan
4.18 The large embankment to the south of the settlement at Jebel at-Tahuna
4.19 Plan of the irrigated estate of al-Hammam, southern Jordan
4.20 al-Hammam: main water channel
4.21 al-hammam: construction detail of the aqueduct
4.22 DAS site number 265: a village site on the eastern edge of the Edom plateau
4.23 DAS site 113: a cross-wadi wall system
4.24 Ein Boqeq: plan of the irrigated plantation
4.25 et-Tlah: the lattice grid field system, aerial photograph and plan
4.26 et-Tlah: the lattice field system as it is today
4.27 et-Tlah: construction detail of the reservoir
5.1 The immediate environs of Wadi Faynan
5.2 A simplified geomorphological study of the Wadi Faynan valley
5.3 Positional plan of the main Wadi Faynan field systems
5.4 WF4: the twenty field units
5.5 WF4.6-4.9: the gently stepped terrace fields
5.6 WF4.3: the ‘herring-bone’ fields
5.7 part of the Field Correction Map
5.8 The field systems north of the Wadi Faynan
5.9 WF4: plan of sites mentioned in the text
5.10 Trench 1 in WF288: section photograph
5.11 WF288: point of dissection by a more recent tributary wadi
5.12 Trench 2 in field WF4.6.47
5.13 WF4: walls within the Field Database A
5.14 WF4: walls within the Field Database B
5.15 Aerial view of the Khirbet Faynan
6.1 WF4: the relative position of the first twelve field units
6.2 Walls of field database A
6.3 Walls of field database B
6.4 WF4: coverage of existing field walls within WF4.1-4.12
6.5 WF4: fields recently ploughed
6.6 WF4: areas of damaged walls within the field system
6.7 WF4: areas of well-preserved walls within the field system
6.8 WF4.1-4.12: maximum wall widths
6.9 WF4.1-4.12: maximum wall heights
6.10 WF4.1-4.12: distribution of single-faced terrace walls
6.11 WF4.1-4.12: single-faced wide terrace walls from Field Database A
6.12 WF4.1-4.12: double-faced free standing walls within Field Database A
6.13 WF4.1-4.12: total pottery sherds collected per field
6.14 WF4: total numbers of sherds collected in the field walking exercise
6.15 WF4.1-4.12: collected pottery sherd density
6.16 WF4.1-4.12: collected pottery sherd - weight density
6.17 WF4.1-4.12: ‘clicked sherd’ density
6.18 WF4.1-4.12: seasons of fieldwalking
6.19 WF4: total distribution of datable sherds
6.20 WF4: distribution of Nabataean/early Roman fineware sherds
6.21 WF4: distribution of late Roman fineware sherds
6.22 WF4: distribution of Byzantine fineware sherds
6.23 WF4: distribution of late Byzantine/early Islamic fineware sherds
6.24 WF4.1-4.12: Nabataean/early Roman fineware sherds in relation to walls
6.25 WF4.1-4.12: late Roman fineware sherds in relation to walls
V
Figures
6.26 WF4.1-4.12: Byzantine fineware sherds in relation to walls
6.27 WF4.12: area of fields selected for statistical testing
6.28 WF4.3: terraced fields selected for statistical testing
6.29 WF4.1-4.12: the relationship of parallel walls and Byzantine fineware sherds
6.30 WF4.1-4.12: the relationship of neatly-coursed walls to Byzantine sherds
6.31 WF4.1-4.12: the relationship of neatly-coursed walls to all fineware sherds
6.32 WF4.1-4.12: the relationship of wall types 3 and 5 to all fineware sherds
6.33 WF4.1-4.12: the relationship of wall types 3 and 5 of medium-sized stones to all
fineware sherds
6.34 WF4.1-4.12: the relative proportion of field area to perimeter length
6.35 Schematic model of the field system of WF4.10
6.36 WF4.1-4.12: the remains of channel networks within units WF4.1-4.9
6.37 WF4.1-4.12: selected field groups
6.38 WF4: simple development model of the field system
7.1 The major farming systems of the Classical period southern Levant
7.2 Settlement change in the Nabataean/early Roman period
7.3 Settlement change in the late Roman period
7.4 Settlement change in the Byzantine period
7.5 Settlement change in the early Islamic period
7.6 A comparison of the results of four central Jordan landscape surveys
vi
Acknowledgements
This research was funded by NERC, and I gratefully acknowledge their support. I would very
much like to thank my supervisors Professor Graeme Barker and Dr. Mark Gillings for a great deal
of encouragement and helpful guidance. There are many other people to whom I am indebted for
professional assistance and with whose help this work has benefited. Chief among these is
Professor David Mattingly for first alerting me to the possibilities that Wadi Faynan offered and for
his general interest in my progress since. I would also like to thank the former staff at the CBRL
Institute at Amman, Jordan, particularly the former Director, Alison McQuitty, the former Assistant
Director, George Findlater and the Administrator, Nadja Qaisi. In addition, I would like to show
my appreciation to various scholars of the other foreign institutes in both Jordan and Syria,
particularly Professor Jean-Marie Dentzer, Dr. Jean-Marie Blanc and Dr. Francois Villeneuve of
IFAPO, Damascus; and Dr. Stefan Freiberger of DAI, Damascus. The staff of the Department of
Antiquities of both Jordan and Syria also provided help, and in the case of Dr. Hassan Hatoum, of
the Suweida office in Syria, a welcome place to stay in the museum there. So special thanks goes
to Dr. Sultan Muhesen in Syria and Dr. Gharzi Bisheh in Jordan, respective heads of these
government departments. Other thanks go to Professor David Kennedy, Dr. Bob Bewley, Michael
Macdonald and Dr. Roberta Tomber for valuable information on certain subjects.
For occasional practical help in the fields of the Levant, and many enjoyable times, I have to thank
Sceherazade Ameer, Tony Credland, Helen Philip, Holly Parton, Joachim Hetzel, Caroline Bachle,
Emma Harris, and Patrick Daly. For keeping me financially afloat, and almost sponsoring me at