SELF-PERCEPTIONS AND BODY IMAGE IN PREADOLESCENT GIRLS AND BOYS By ANDREA ...

142 Pages·2006·1.1 MB·English

SELF-PERCEPTIONS ANDBODY IMAGE
IN PREADOLESCENT
GIRLS ANDBOYS
By
ANDREADAWNKINLEN
BachelorofSciencein Psychology
MississippiStateUniversity
Starkville,Mississippi
1998
MasterofScienceinPsychology
MississippiStateUniversity
Starkville,Mississippi
2000
MasterofScienceinPsychology
OklahomaStateUniversity
Stillwater,Oklahoma
2004
SubmittedtotheFacultyofthe
GraduateCollegeofthe
OklahomaStateUniversity
inpartial fulfillment of
therequirements for
theDegreeof
DOCTOR OFPHILOSOPHY
December,2006
SELF-PERCEPTIONS ANDBODY IMAGE
IN PREADOLESCENT
GIRLS ANDBOYS
Dissertation Approved:
MelanieC.Page,Ph.D.
DissertationAdviser
MaureenSullivan,Ph.D.
CommitteeMember
JohnM.Chaney,Ph.D.
CommitteeMember
RonaldS.Harrist,Ph.D.
CommitteeMember
A. GordonEmslie
Deanofthe Graduate College
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TABLEOFCONTENTS
Chapter Page
I. INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................1
II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE
BodyImageConcerns..............................................................................................7
BodyImageConcerns inAdolescents...............................................................7
BodyImageConcerns inChildren.....................................................................9
Gender Differences inBodyImage.................................................................12
Overall Summaryof BodyImageConcerns....................................................15
BodyImageandSelf-Perceptions..........................................................................15
Social Acceptance............................................................................................15
AthleticCompetence andPhysical Activity....................................................19
Physical Appearance........................................................................................20
Global Self-Worth............................................................................................25
Overall Summaryof BodyImageandSelf-Perceptions..................................26
BodyImageConcerns andTypeofSchooling......................................................27
Limitations ofCurrent Literature...........................................................................28
PurposeofStudy....................................................................................................30
Hypotheses.............................................................................................................30
Hypothesis 1.....................................................................................................30
Hypothesis 2.....................................................................................................30
Hypothesis 2a...............................................................................................31
Hypothesis 2b...............................................................................................31
Hypothesis 2c...............................................................................................31
Hypothesis 2d...............................................................................................31
Hypothesis 3.....................................................................................................32
Research Questions ...............................................................................................32
ResearchQuestion1........................................................................................32
ResearchQuestion2........................................................................................32
III. METHODLOGY
Participants.............................................................................................................33
Measures................................................................................................................33
Demographic InformationForm (Appendix A)................................................33
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EatingBehaviors and BodyImageTest (EBBIT)forPreadolescent Girls
(Appendix B)..............................................................................................34
TheKids EatingDisorders Survey(KEDS; Appendix C)................................35
BodyImageSilhouettes (BIS; Appendix D) ...................................................36
Self-PerceptionProfileforChildren(SPPC; Appendix E)...............................37
Height andWeight Assessment........................................................................37
Procedure...............................................................................................................38
Recruitment ofPublicSchool Participants.......................................................38
Recruitment ofHomeSchool Participants........................................................39
AdministrationofMeasures...............................................................................40
IV.FINDINGS.............................................................................................................42
PreliminaryAnalyses.............................................................................................45
Hypothesis 1...........................................................................................................46
Hypothesis 2...........................................................................................................48
Hypothesis 2a...................................................................................................48
Hypothesis 2b...................................................................................................50
Hypothesis 2c...................................................................................................52
Hypothesis 2d...................................................................................................55
Research Question1..............................................................................................57
Research Question2..............................................................................................58
V. CONCLUSION......................................................................................................59
Summaryand InterpretationofResults.................................................................60
RelationshipBetween BMI, BodyDissatisfaction,andEatingBehaviors......60
RelationshipBetween Gender,BodyDissatisfaction,andEatingBehaviors..61
RelationshipBetweenPerceivedSocial Acceptance,BodyDissatisfaction,
andEatingBehaviors.................................................................................63
RelationshipBetweenPerceivedAthleticCompetence, BodyDissatisfaction,
andEatingBehaviors.................................................................................65
RelationshipBetweenPerceivedPhysical Appearance,BodyDissatisfaction,
andEatingBehaviors.................................................................................66
RelationshipBetweenPerceivedGlobal Self-Worth,BodyDissatisfaction,
andEatingBehaviors.................................................................................67
Internal ConsistencyoftheEBBIT withPreadolescent Boys.........................69
ValidityoftheEBBIT as ComparedwiththeKEDS......................................69
Implications of Findings........................................................................................70
Methodological Considerations.............................................................................72
FutureResearchDirections....................................................................................75
Conclusions............................................................................................................78
REFERENCES............................................................................................................80
APPENDICES...........................................................................................................104
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LISTOFTABLES
Table Page
1. Intercorrelations for Variables of Interest..............................................................43
2. Means andStandardDeviations forVariables of Interest byGender...................44
3. Frequencyof BISDIS byGender...........................................................................45
4. SummaryofHierarchical Regression Analyses for Hypothesis One....................47
5. SummaryofHierarchical RegressionAnalyses for Hypothesis 2a.......................50
6. SummaryofHierarchical RegressionAnalyses for Hypothesis 2b.......................52
7. SummaryofHierarchical RegressionAnalyses for Hypothesis 2c.......................54
8. SummaryofHierarchical RegressionAnalyses for Hypothesis 2d.......................57
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Bodyimageis amultidimensional concept that is comprisedofperceptual,
attitudinal,andaffective components (Gardner,Stark,Friedman, &Jackson,2002;
Striegel-Moore &Franko,2002; Thompson,Heinberg,Altabe, &Tantleff-Dunn,1999).
Bodyimage generallyrefers tohowoneperceives his/herbodyandtheresultant feelings
about that perception.Bodyimage can affect emotions,thoughts,relationships,and
behaviors ineverydaylife(Pruzinsky&Cash,2002).Researchonbodyimagehas
focusedonwomen and girls becauseproblems relatedtobodyimageappeartobemost
pronouncedinthis population(APA,2000).Thephrase“normativediscontent”was first
usedalmost twodecades agotodescribethepervasivenegativefeelings that girls and
womenexperiencetoward theirbodies (Rodin,Silberstein,&Striegel-Moore,1985).
Sincethen,therehavebeenalargenumberofstudies focusingonbodyimage and its
effects onqualityoflifeforwomenand girls.However,recent researchhas indicatedthat
thenumberofmen andboys whohavebodydissatisfactionandwhopresent fortreatment
ofeatingdisturbances is increasing(Carlat &Camargo,1991; Furnham,Badmin,&
Sneade,2002; Ricciardelli &McCabe,2004).
Formost people,maintainingaverylowweight is biologicallyimpossible
without takingextreme measures.Thesemeasures includepurgingand restrictiveeating.
People(especiallygirls andwomen)whohavebodyimageproblems aremorelikelyto
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engageinsuchbehaviors (Striegel-Moore & Franko,2002). Inturn,these extremeefforts
mayincreasetheriskof developingmoresevere difficulties suchas eatingdisorders.
Thus,researchers have concludedthat bodydissatisfactionis asignificant riskfactorfor
eatingdisturbances (Streigel-Moore & Franko,2002).
Adolescenceis themost frequentlycitedperiodfortheonset ofsevere eating
disorders (APA,2000; Stein&Reichert,1990).Prevalencerates ofeatingdisorders
amongfemale adolescents and youngadult women havebeenfoundtobe between0.5%
and1%for AnorexiaNervosaand between1% and3%for BulimiaNervosa(APA,
2000).TheNational InstituteofMental Health(2001)reports slightlyhighernumbers,
withthelifetimeprevalenceofAnorexiaNervosa inwomenas .5%to3.7%,and 1.1%to
4.2%for BulimiaNervosa. Inareviewoftheprevalence andincidenceof eating
disorders intheliterature,Hoek and van Hoeken (2003)foundprevalencerates for young
womenof.3%forAnorexiaNervosaand1%for BulimiaNervosa. Formen,the
prevalencerateforBulimiaNervosawas .1%,andtherateforAnorexiaNervosawas
believedtobemuchlowerthanthat for Bulimia Nervosa (Hoek &van Hoeken,2003).
Ricciardelli andMcCabe (2004)arguethat it is moredifficult todiagnose eating
disorders inmen,as men areless likelytouseextremeweight loss methods. In addition,
manyofthebinge-eatingpatterns seen as abnormal orinappropriateforwomenare
sociallyacceptedformen(Carlat &Carmago,1991; Carlat,Camargo, & Herzog,1997;
Riccardelli &McCabe,2004).The genderinfluences onprevalencerates areless
apparent ifpartial syndromeeatingdisorders aretakenintoaccount (Woodsideet al.,
2001),andestimates that includepartial syndrome eatingdisorders maybe amore
accurateindicatorofthe problem formen(Ricciardelli &McCabe,2004). Woodsideand
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colleagues (2001)notedthat ifpartial syndrome eatingdisorders areincludedinaddition
tofull syndromeeatingdisorders formen,theprevalence rate for BulimiaNervosais
1.08%(comparedwith3.16%inwomen)and the prevalencerateforAnorexiaNervosais
.92%(comparedwith1.81%inwomen).Despitethemethodusedfor calculating
prevalencerates of eatingdisorders,underestimationofprevalencerates maybea
problem becauseeatingdisorders arepossiblyoverrepresented amongpersons who
choosenot tocooperate withprevalencestudies (Fairburn & Beglin,1990).
It maynot bepossibleto knowtheexact prevalenceofeatingdisorders inchildren
becausethecriteriafor childrenareoftenhardtoassess anddiagnose (APA,2000; Lask
&Bryant-Waugh,1992). It is estimatedthat approximately0.5%ofprepubertal children
andadolescents are affectedbyAnorexiaNervosa.Althoughtheprevalencerates are
slightlylowerfor children,someresearchers have suggestedthat preadolescent children
arejust as likelytobeconcerned about theirbodyimage as adolescents (Brodie,Bagley,
&Slade,1994), whichplaces them at riskforeatingdisturbances (Striegel-Moore &
Franko,2002). Inaddition,manyresearchers believethat factors duringchildhoodare
directlyrelatedtothe experienceofbodydissatisfactionandeatingdisorders in
adolescence. Becausethe prevalenceof eatingdisorders andsymptoms inyounger
populations is drawingmoreandmoreattention,researchers havebeguntoexaminethe
etiology,symptoms,and predictors ofproblem eatinginpreadolescents (Rolland,Farnill,
&Griffiths,1996).
Althoughdiagnosingeatingdisorders inchildrenis difficult,it is clearfrom the
literaturethat manyarepreoccupiedwiththeirweights and exhibit distortedperceptions
oftheirbodysizes (i.e.,a distortedbodyimage; Cohnet al.,1987; Fallon &Rozin,1985;
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Thompson,Corwin,&Sargent,1997).There are numerous riskfactors for distortedbody
image andeatingdisorders.For example,bodydissatisfactionresultingfrom theonset of
pubertyandothermaturational factors has beensuggested as aprecursorto eating
disorders (Leon, Keel,Klump,&Fulkerson,1997).Highstress reactivityandnegative
emotionalityhavebeenconsideredsignificant psychological factors (Leon, Klerman, &
Wickramarante,1993).Sociocultural factors that areconsideredsignificant contributors
tobodyimage concerns arethecultural ideal ofthinness andtheportrayal ofthethin
ideal bodysizeinthemedia(Smolak& Levine,2001; Striegel-Moore &Franko,2002).
In addition,someresearchers haveproposedthat sexual abuseis apotential factorfor
increasedriskofeatingdisorders and bodyimage disturbanceinchildren (Vize&
Cooper,1995; Waller,Halek,&Crisp,1993). Furthermore,earlychildhoodeating
patterns (Marchi &Cohen,1990),earlydietingbehavior(Hill,1993; Lask &Bryant-
Waugh,1992), andfamilyattitudes andbehaviors (Felker &Stivers,1994; Pike&Rodin,
1991)havebeenlinkedtobodyimageproblems andproblem eatingbehaviors.Other
factors believedtoinfluenceeatingpathologyare socioeconomicstatus (Rogers,Resnick,
Mitchell,&Blum,1997), temperament (Shaw&Steiner,1997),and attachment style
(Sharpeet al.,1998).
Self-esteem,whichis the evaluativeand affective senseofone’s self(Wang&
Ollendick,2001),has alsobeenidentifiedas onefactorthat couldinfluence bodyimage.
Self-esteem issues maybequiteprevalent duringpreadolescence,whichis theprecursor
toatimeofgreat change (i.e.,pubertyand adolescence; Hill,1993; Maloney, McGuire,
Daniels,&Specker,1989).Thedevelopment ofself-esteem is amultidimensional
concept (Cole et al.,2001)andtheresult ofacombinationoffactors.One dimensionof
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self-esteem that is oftenstudiedis physical appearance(Cole et al.,2001). Researchers
havefoundthat physical appearanceis apowerful determinant ofself-perceptions
(Feingold,1992; Page,1992),andfeelings ofpersonal attractiveness are relatedto
feelings ofself-esteem (Zakin, Blyth,&Simmons,1994).Studies inthis areasuggest that
problems withlowself-esteem maybeexpressedthrough excessiveweight control and
eatingdisorders (Button, Loan, Davies, &Sonuga-Bark,1997; Button,Sonuga-Bark,
Davies, &Thompson; 1996; Grant & Fodor,1986).
Basedontheliterature,thereappears tobealink betweenbodysatisfactionand
global self-concept.Self-esteem is seenas a general,ratherthanaspecificriskfactorfor
bodyimagedisturbance anddisorderedeatingpatterns becauseit is alsorelatedtoother
psychological difficulties (Button,1990; Hill &Pallin,1998; Stice,Hayward,Cameron,
Killen,&Taylor,2000; Wichstrom,1999). It is oftenthe general factors (e.g.,lowself-
esteem,poorfamilyrelations,and negativeemotionality)that arecited as distinguishing
betweenpeoplewhohaveserious weight concerns andeatingproblems andthosewho
aredisplayingweight concerns that arecommonformanypeopleinmodernsociety
(Leung,Schwartzman,& Steiger,1996; Shisslak &Crago,2001; Shisslak,Crago, &
Estes,1995),oftentermed “normativediscontent” whenspeakingof womenand girls
(Rolland,et al.,1996).
Duetothenumberofdifferent factors that havebeenlinkedwithbodyimage and
maladaptiveeatingpatterns,theexact determinants ofeatingdisorders and bodyimage
concerns continues tobe uncleardespitetheplethoraofliterature.Thequest tofinda
singlecausehas beenabandonedbymost researchers,andeatingdisorders and body
image arenowbeingviewedlargelyas determinedbyavarietyof factors including
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