Self- and peer-assessment : guidance on practice in the biosciences

48 Pages·2006·0.732 MB·English

by  Paul Orsmond

Teaching Bioscience
Enhancing Learning Series
Edited by Stephen Maw, Jackie Wilson & Heather Sears
Self- and Peer-Assessment
Guidance on Practice in the Biosciences Paul Orsmond
The
Higher
Education Centre for
Academy Bioscience
Teaching BioscienceEnhancing Learningis a series of
guides intended to be an accessible introduction to
good learning and teaching practice within the context
of competing research and institutional pressures. The
aim of each publication is to provide a persuasive
overview of the pedagogic reasons for adopting a
particular practice and support these reasons with
sufficient practical guidance and information to turn
ideas into reality. The guides are structured around a
common format; Chapter 1 provides a general
introduction to the topic, Chapter 2 advice on how to
implement the topic and Chapter 3 more in-depth
information on the topic and the opportunity to
investigate it further. In addition, each guide contains a
collection of bioscience case studies highlighting how
others have introduced the topic into their teaching
practice. It is intended that the guide will be useful to
academics in their first year of lecturing, particularly
those who are studying for Postgraduate Certificates in
Learning & Teaching in Higher Education, as well as to
those with many years of teaching experience.
First published in Great Britain in 2004
by Centre for Bioscience, The Higher Education Academy, Leeds LS2 9JT.
ISBN 0 9548751 0 9
Copyright of this Guide resides with The Higher Education Academy of which the Centre for Bioscience is part. The
material in this Guide is subject to copyright protection and may be reproduced free of charge in any format or media
without requiring specific permission, subject to it being reproduced accurately and not being used in a derogatory
manner or in a misleading context. Where the material is being published or issued to others, the sources and copyright
status should be acknowledged. This permission does not extend to any material in the Guide that is identified as being
the copyright of a third party. Copyright over this material sits with the original author.
Whilst every effort has been made to ensure that the information provided is accurate, it does not constitute legal or
other professional advice. The Higher Education Academy does not accept any legal responsibility for any errors,
omissions or misleading statements (caused by negligence or otherwise). The Higher Education Academy does not
assume any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy or completeness of any information contained in this Guide.
3
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION 4
CHAPTER 1 INVOLVING STUDENTS IN ASSESSMENT 6
CHAPTER 2 GETTING STARTED WITH SELF- AND PEER-ASSESSMENT 12
CHAPTER 3 GOING DEEPER 21
CLOSING THOUGHTS 26
BIOSCIENCE CASE STUDIES 27
CASE STUDY 1
THE EFFECT OF MARKING CRITERIA AND EXEMPLARS
ON STUDENTS’ LEARNING DURING PEER- AND SELF-ASSESSMENT
OF SCIENTIFIC POSTERS 28
CASE STUDY 2
ON-LINE CALIBRATED PEER-ASSESSMENT —
STUDENT LEARNING BY MARKING ASSIGNMENTS 31
CASE STUDY 3
PEER-ASSESSMENT OF SCIENTIFIC POSTERS —
THE LEAGUE FIXTURE APPROACH 33
CASE STUDY 4
PEER-ASSESSMENT OF GROUP WORK IN A LARGE CLASS — 35
DEVELOPMENT OF A STAFF AND STUDENT FRIENDLY SYSTEM
CASE STUDY 5
PEER-ASSESSMENT OF PRACTICAL WRITE-UPS
USING AN EXPLICIT MARKING SCHEDULE 37
CASE STUDY 6
WRITING AND REVIEWING AN ARTICLE FOR A SCIENTIFIC MAGAZINE — 41
A PEER/SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
CASE STUDY 7
PEER-ASSESSED PROBLEM-BASED CASE STUDIES 43
REFERENCES 45
TEACHING BIOSCIENCEENHANCING LEARNING
4
INTRODUCTION
This guide is for those bioscientists teaching in higher education who are interested in
using self- and peer-assessment in their learning and teaching activities, but who may
feel they have little understanding of how to go about doing so. Some of the reasons for
choosing self- and peer-assessment as opposed to other assessment methods are
outlined in Table 1 on page 5.
This book is written to a specific format, made up of three chapters:
Chapter 1 is an introductory chapter that discusses some concerns about the most
common assessment practices within higher education today. Through this under-
standing, we can proceed towards illustrating how self- and peer-assessment can be a
positive instrument for change. In order to be used effectively, it is helpful to understand
the theoretical learning framework which underpins these student-centred assessment
practices. Chapter 1 concludes with a discussion on effective learning through self- and
peer-assessment. This chapter is very much about providing a rationale for the need for
change and provides a way in which meaningful change can be brought about.
Chapter 2 considers in detail how you can get started with self- and peer-assessment.
Specific issues related to the effective design, implementation and evaluation of self- and
peer-assessment, such as the central role played by students engaging with marking
criteria are discussed in detail. Here we take a deeper look at those requirements, from
developing marking criteria to the development of a community of practice, providing
practical suggestions in undertaking self- and peer-assessment, whilst illustrating some
requirements for good practice.
Chapter 3 reflects the world in which students are being prepared. This is a world which
requires the achievement of complex learning outcomes in order to meet the demands of
employment and engagement in lifelong learning. Such learning outcomes are part-
icularly well served by the application of self- and peer-assessment. The Chapter then
moves from learning environments that use self- and peer-assessment, such as problem-
based and reflective learning, to consider the role of formative and summative assessment
and finally to considering how students and tutors perceive each assessment source.
The structure of the book is therefore to look at the rationale for using self- and peer-
assessment, to outline effective application and finally to see how effective a learning tool
both self- and peer-assessment can be.
In order to illuminate the role of self- and peer-assessment in practice, this book also
contains seven bioscience case studies. Expanded versions of these and other case
studies, marking criteria, and video streams of peer-assessment in action, are available
from the website supporting this guide (http://www.bioscience.heacademy.ac.uk/
TeachingGuides/). In addition, the chapters draw on a number of specific examples from
published research of practice, each chosen because they illustrate a particular aspect of
the assessment process well. Whilst some of these examples are from bioscience, a
number are not, but in these cases the examples can be readily transferred into a
biosciences setting.
SELF- AND PEER-ASSESSMENTPAUL ORSMOND
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TABLE 1. A COMPARISON BETWEEN SELF- AND PEER-ASSESSMENT
AND OTHER ASSESSMENTS
Self- and Peer-Assessment Other Assessments
Student-centred. Students often excluded.
Norm referenced assessment. Or if
Clear transparent criteria. criteria used, these may be given to
students without discussion.
Students isolated from the assessment
Student empowered. There is a strong
and therefore from the learning
sense of personal ownership.
process.
Likely to encourage a deep approach to Likely to foster a surface approach
learning. to learning.
Allows students to actively construct Does not provide the incentives to
their learning. construct own learning.
Encourages discussion between
Little discussion, sometimes none.
students and tutors.
Feedback misunderstandings due to
Formative feedback. lapse of time or loss of ongoing comm-
unication between student and tutor.
Opportunity to revise or review weak Results final, with little point in going
areas of learning. back over boxes ‘ticked’.
Results received too late in the method
More trial and less error in student to revisit or be useful in learning
learning. process. Little trial and
a lot of error in learning.
Prepares students for the lifelong Often end-point destination only
ongoing journey of learning. learning.
For peer-assessment often several One assessor and a moderator or at
assessors. most two assessors.
Provides good opportunities for
Little formative assessment.
formative assessment.
Likely to increases student’s Limited or negative effect on
confidence. confidence.
Increased performance/learning quality
–
of the learning output.
Often authentic learning tasks. Rarely authentic learning tasks.
TEACHING BIOSCIENCEENHANCING LEARNING
6
I
1
INVOLVING STUDENTS IN ASSESSMENT
A CONSIDERATION OF CURRENT ASSESSMENT PRACTICE IN HIGHER EDUCATION
The reason why it is desirable and infinitely sensible to have students involved and central to the
assessment process is well illustrated by Boud and Falchikov (1989), ‘teachers have limited access to
the knowledge of their students and in many ways students have greater insights into their own
achievements’. The fact that this is not normally recognised in higher education is a serious concern,
as reflected by Boud (1995) ‘there is probably more bad practice and ignorance of significant issues in
the area of assessment than in any other aspect of higher education. Assessment acts as a mechanism
to control students that is far more pervasive and insidious than most staff would be prepared to
acknowledge’. This is unfortunate, as assessment is a foundation of student achievement and
therefore regarded as a measure of institutional success. Why, if assessment is so important to
undergraduate learning experiences, should bad practice exist?
There may be a number of reasons for a lack of student involvement. Increasingly in higher
education, there is greater cross-disciplinary teaching taking place. Courses like forensic science
involve tutors from different departments such as biology, chemistry and law, and each department
may have their ‘own’ understanding of assessment within their own structure of assessment policies.
Institutions may also be presenting tutors with too many assessment options without looking into or
understanding them fully. In a recent publication, Knight (2001) presented fifty assessment techniques.
For some, this diversity may be heaven sent, but for others it could be thoroughly overwhelming; and
without guidance, many excellent tutors can be left not knowing where to begin.
Because of this mix of practice, assessment processes in higher education generate a mixture
of concerns, such as:
Criteria concerns
• ‘Norm’ referenced marking; grading students according to how they compare against each
other as a class. Norm referencing may still be the ‘naturally’ preferred model of assessment
by most markers, Rust et al.(2003).
• Criteria referenced marking, where grading is expressed according to each student’s
performance, may have criteria and individual weightings that are often unclear and not
constructed with the involvement of students.
Assessment deficiencies
• Learners ill-informed about what they need to know in order to understand or do. Interestingly,
Gabb (1981) reported that the only piece of assessment information given to a cohort of students
preparing to undertake final year projects was the name of the assessor. In response to this
limited information, students deduced and developed their own sets of assessment rules, by
which they tried to work out how best to pass the assessment.
• The development of a truly hidden and non-transparent curriculum, described by Sambell and
McDowell (1998) as ‘the shadowy, ill-defined and amorphous nature of that which is implicit and
embedded in educational experiences in contrast with formal statements about curricula and
the surface features of educational interaction.’
SELF- AND PEER-ASSESSMENTPAUL ORSMOND
7
Tutor folklore (outcomes), devise a rational programme to attain
them, set criteria of excellence by which work is
• Community discussions between academics in assessed and assess their own work, then the
a field developed through years of experience, ‘unilateral control and assessment of students by
concerning assessing and teaching (Edwards staff means that the process of education is at odds
and Knight, 1995). with the objective of that process’ (Heron, 1988).
Feedback concerns
A NEED FOR CHANGE IN ASSESSMENT PRACTICE
• Feedback can be given too late to be of benefit.
Sixteen years ago, Heron (1988) thought the time was
• Feedback can be diminished in usefulness ripe for an educational change from the authoritarian
because students do not understand it or model to one which is student inclusive. Almost ten
perceive its importance (Chanock, 2000). years after Heron’s call for change, came the
publication of Higher Education in the Learning Society.
Traditionally, so-called ‘summative’ assess- The Dearing Report (1997), as it became known,
ment, (for example, end of module examinations), has perhaps noting that little, or no change had occurred,
been used to determine how much ‘learning’ has attempted to prime teaching staff in universities to
taken place. Used here, summative refers to an end- make a professional commitment to teaching. Dearing
point mark, which influences student progression and addressed as a priority the improvement of the
may contribute towards their degree classification. student learning environments, recommended that
Failing an assessment may mean students do not learning and teaching strategies should now focus on
progress, yet passing does not always indicate the promotion of student learning and stressed that a
meaningful learning, as demonstrated by these radical change to teaching was needed.
student interview quotes from Brown et al. (1998); The impact of Dearing on assessment may be
‘you shallow learn for an exam but you don’t know the gauged by the comments of Brown and Glasner (2003),
stuff. It’s poor learning which you quickly forget’, and who noted that the range of ways in which students
‘you think just let me remember this for the next hour are assessed is unfortunately extremely limited with
and a half. Then you don’t care’. These students around 80 per cent of assessment being in the form of
appear to see learning as an end product of assess- exams, essays or reports of some kind. This may only
ment and view the learning quantitatively, which partly reflect what is assessed, consisting of a very
means that to be a good learner is to know more. The limited range of student skills, knowledge and ability.
student learning which higher education needs to Students appear to do the same old types of activities
encourage is qualitative learning, where new material again and again. It may have been as a result of these
can be interpreted and incorporated, so that under- same old activities that Boud (2000) was led to assert
standing is progressively changed through an on- that ‘assessment practices in higher education
going, updating process (Biggs, 1996). institutions tend not to equip students well for the
Underpinning many existing assessment pro- process of effective learning in a learning society’.
cesses is the issue of ownership and hence power. Boud’s comments shed further light on the impact of
When referring to the goal of education, Rogers (2003) the Dearing report, as the use of the ‘learning society’
made the distinction between authoritarian or formed part of its title. Dearing’s view of the learning
democratic philosophies. Heron (1992) distinguished society reflected a ‘vision’ of a society (individuals, the
authority in education as being either benign, lumin- state, employers and providers of education and
ous and truly educative, or punitive, indoctrinating training) committed to learning throughout life, more
and intimidating. It is the latter which formed the as a process or journey of discovery, rather than a
basis for his authoritarian model (so called because of ticked box outcome. Boud (2000) discussed a more
the unilateral control of assessment by staff). For complex view of the learning society in which ‘those
Heron (1988), power lay with those who make who are skilled and flexible learners will flourish,
decisions about other people. Students are consider- others will languish’. Thus a need for change within
ed rationally competent to grasp a major discipline, assessment is evident to encourage progressive
but perversely are not considered competent to learning, as skilled and flexible learners are unlikely
engage with the educational decision-making, where- products of Heron’s authoritarian model of
by this grasp may be fully achieved. If, as Heron assessment. The way forward is to look for a model of
believed, the objective of the process of education is student assessment which is inclusive, involving
the emergence of a self-determining person, i.e. students and tutors working collaboratively. Self- and
someone who can set their own learning objectives peer-assessments provide just that model.
TEACHING BIOSCIENCEENHANCING LEARNING
8 CHAPTER 1 INVOLVING STUDENTS IN ASSESSMENT
SELF- AND PEER-ASSESSMENT:
A WAY TO IMPLEMENT CHANGE Figure 1. Autonomous learning
Writing in the early 1950s, Rogers (2003) outlined the
goals of democratic education, in assisting students
to become individuals. He included such attributes as
being ‘a critical learner, able to evaluate the
contributions made by others and being able to self- Task Teacher
initiate actions and be responsible for those actions’.
Furthermore, he went on to say that, ‘we cannot teach
The learner and
another person directly; we can only facilitate their
autonomous
learning. A person learns significantly only those learning
things which they perceive as being involved in the
maintenance of, or enhancement of, the structure of
self’. These are sentiments which underly self- and
peer-assessment philosophy. The defining character-
istic of self-assessment is the ‘involvement of
Environment
students in identifying standards and/or criteria to
apply to their work and making judgements about the
extent to which they have met these criteria and Source: Higgs (1988)
standards’ (Boud, 1986). Peer-assessment has been
defined (Topping et al., 2000) as ‘an arrangement for
peers to consider the level, value, worth, quality or dependent on the assessment process. In the self-
successfulness of the products or outcomes of determining student who will be self-assessing, the
learning of others of similar status’. From these assessment will be included in the process of
definitions it becomes apparent that self- and peer- learning, as well as work done on the content of the
assessments are not methods of assessment but learning. Therefore assessing how learning takes
sources of assessment that may be used within a place and considering how evidence is provided of
framework of different methods (Brown et al.,1997). what has been learnt is fundamentally more
At the heart of both of these assessment important than assessing what has been learnt or
processes is the student. Brew (1995) commenting on memorized. The shift to self-determination and self-
the conceptual shift in higher education from a focus assessment starts to make the process more
on teaching, to a perspective in which student important than content (Heron, 1988). Some may
learning is central, illustrates the importance of this consider that Heron demotes content too much,
student centredness, ‘the essence of the learning believing, with some justification, that a balance
perspective is that it considers all decisions about needs to be established between the process of
teaching and assessment in the light of the impact or learning and the content of learning. However, the
potential impact on student learning’. Both self- and stress on the process and the content in self- and
peer-assessment appear to have an emphasis on peer-assessment highlights the need for effective
developing student autonomy, which, while not an communication between students and tutors
easy concept to define, does have ‘some of the concerning the use of appropriate tasks and activities.
attributes required by anyone if they are to be effective This is well illustrated, for example, in the need for
learners’. After all, being dependent on others tutor and student to discuss and agree assessment
(teachers) and not being able to plan and manage criteria, which results in students having a greater
your own journey, or process of lifelong learning will degree of ownership of each assessment they are
not be effective preparation for learning and the world undertaking (Falchikov and Boud, 1989). While it is
of employment (Boud, 1988). evident that greater ownership may also be related to
The model shown in Figure 1 from Higgs (1988) a shift in power, a note of caution needs to be
is of autonomous learning. It shows how the four expressed. Tan (2004) argues that while self-
principal elements of learner, teacher, task and assessment provides students ‘with more autonomy
environment interact together. How successful the to judge their own work, more is known about the
interaction is, depends mainly on the extent to which students in terms of how they view themselves’. This
the elements are consistent with each other and upon has implications for how power is manifested within
certain specific assumptions, such as, that self- the assessment process. Therefore, it is vital for
directed learning needs to be active and not passive. student empowerment to understand the ways in
More importantly, the outcomes of learning are which power is exercised.
SELF- AND PEER-ASSESSMENTPAUL ORSMOND
9
grades and admitted to getting into the mentality of
Figure 2. Requirements for generating ‘what am I going to get out of this in terms of credit’.
the Zone of Formative Learning
When asked ‘How do you know what is expected of
you?’, the majority suggested that they didn’t really
know as ‘they never actually say what they are looking
for’. Students also often talked of ‘guessing’.
Assessment
Students at Alverno used feedback construct-
ively, to help them to plan their work and to
understand how they were developing as learners.
Explicit criteria and learning integrated with the
assessment process allowed students, through self-
Student Task
assessment, to take control of their own learning.
Before considering self- and peer-assessment
in a little more detail, it would help to be familiar with
some aspects of the learning process.
Zone of
Facilitator Formative
Learning
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS TO LEARNING
Environment
Falchikov (2001) observed that ‘too many educational
initiatives appear to be devoid of theoretical under-
pinning, seeming to be driven by expediency,
economics or political agendas’. Perhaps educational
With this increased ownership, it may be initiatives will go on being at least influenced by such
possible to reconsider Figure 1 to explicitly include as factors. However, learning through self- and peer-
assessment. In Figure 2, the environment provides the assessment can only be understood within a theo-
overall background in which the learning occurs. The retical learning framework. There are two influential
environment is formed from a number of things such theories of learning that we need consider.
as, the learning and teaching beliefs of departments or
faculties, as well as, the human and physical resource Piaget and learning
issues. The environment influences in varying ways the Piaget believed that each child passed through a
student, the facilitator, the assessment practice and series of stages of thinking which were qualitatively
the assessment task(s). These four separate com- different from each other (Sutherland, 1992). A child
ponents all overlap at a given focus, becoming one. It is actively constructs their knowledge of the world around
here that students’ learning is shaped; this is the Zone them as a result of various encounters with the
of Formative Learning. Assessment is, therefore, environment, and also, by, communicating with other
inclusive in the learning process. children, as discussion can challenge existing
Hinett (1995) in a study which compared schemes or concepts leading to a re-think of an
assessment practice at a British University with that original point of view. In this way the child learns by a
carried out at the Alverno College Milwaukee USA series of adjustments to their environment, which is
reported how effectively this close integration can achieved through using two alternative mechanisms
work at an institutional level. A major difference in the within the process — assimilation and accomm-
approach to assessment was in the use of self- and odation — which are balanced through equilibration.
peer-assessment. At Alverno; each student was act- In this way, new material being assimilated by the
ively encouraged to self- and peer-assess. Attitudes learner can be modified against previous concepts,
ranged from ‘it’s painful, but it works and I learn which are stored in the memory as learning
more’ to ‘I like self-assessment because I can reflect progresses. These individual pieces of information are
back and know I should study more in this area’. themselves up-dated by the mechanism of
At the British University little value was given to accommodation and transformed into new material
self- and peer-assessment, which meant students and a more complete understanding. Piaget’s views of
lacked confidence and faith in their own judgements. learning are of particular importance to those of us in
On self-assessment, some typical comments education in a number of rather significant ways. For
students made were that ‘no-one takes it seriously’ example, they underpin the learning cycle proposed
and ‘it is just a hassle’. Furthermore, students learnt by Kolb, which has prominence in higher education as
in a prescriptive environment, being told ‘you will do a model to aid understanding the learning process.
this’. They generally validated their work in terms of Kolb’s learning cycle has frequently been reinterpreted
TEACHING BIOSCIENCEENHANCING LEARNING
10 CHAPTER 1 INVOLVING STUDENTS IN ASSESSMENT
operate only when the child is interacting with other
Figure 3. Structural dimensions underlying the
people in his environment and in cooperation with his
process of experiential learning and the resulting
peers. Once these processes are fully internalised
basic knowledge forms
they become part of the child’s independent
CONCRETEEXPERIENCE development achievement’. Therefore, while both
Piaget and Vygotsky placed a very strong emphasis on
activity as the basis for learning, Vygotsky
emphasised communication and social interaction,
Grasping via
APPREHENSION where teachers (either adults or more experienced
peers) retain varying degrees of influence over each
N Accommodative Divergent R
ATIO knowledge knowledge EFLE child’s learning activities. Wood et al., (1976) saw the
NT CT intervention of a tutor as involving a kind of
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EVITCA Ckonnovwelregdegnet Aksnsoimwlieladtgivee NOITA beyondT hhies tohre hoerre tuicnaals suinsdteedr peifnfnoirntsg.s of the work of
Piaget and Vygotsky are recognisably used in higher
Grasping via
COMPREHENSION education today with regards to self- and peer-assess-
ment. Peer-assessment is grounded in philosophies
of active learning, and may be seen as being a
ABSTRACTCONCEPTUALISATION manifestation of social construction, because it
Source: Kolb (1984) involves the joint construction of knowledge through
discourse (Falchikov and Goldfinch, 2000). Falchikov
(2001) draws our attention to both the work of Piaget
and is often presented in a very simplified form. In and Vygotsky with respect to peer tutoring, and
Figure 3, the unabridged learning cycle (Kolb, 1984), emphasises the role of self- and peer-assessment in
with its strong reference to Piaget’s work is peer tutoring. One of the arguments used by Falchikov
illustrated. Looking at the cycle, we can see it (2003) to illustrate that self- and peer-assessment
represents a very personal cycle of learning, self- are for educational and not just training purposes is
contained from outside social and professional that Piagetian theory stresses the importance of
influences. The learner is very reliant on their own practical concrete experiences for cognitive develop-
perceptions of their learning experience. ment. The role of experience, with social and cultural
influences in learning, is very relevant to self-
assessment (Brew 1995). MacDonald (2004)
Vygotsky and learning discussed the practical implications of implementing
Like Piaget, Vygotsky (1978) believed that children online pedagogies and stressed the communicative
constructed their own learning. Vygotsky was aware potential of e-learning employing a social construct-
that children, often unable to perform tasks or solve ivist approach. It has already been seen how Piagetian
problems alone often succeeded when an adult helped thinking is compatible with Kolb’s learning cycle; but
them. Piaget took a dim view of success obtained in Kolb (1984) also appears to draw on a Vygotsky social
this way, claiming that it involved the teaching and constructivism. This, a less discussed aspect of the
learning of procedures and not the development of fully Kolb learning cycle, is of immense importance in
integrated learning and understanding. For Piaget, relation to self- and peer-assessment.
genuine intellectual competence was a manifestation
of a child’s largely unassisted activities (Wood, 1988),
whereas Vygotsky saw intervention as important. ‘The APPROACHES TO LEARNING
difference between twelve and eight, or between nine
and eight is what we call the Zone of Proximal Deep and surface approaches
Development (ZPD). It is the distance between the A number of advocates of self-assessment relate
actual developmental level as determined by approaches to learning as so-called ‘deep’ and
independent problem solving, and the level of potential ‘surface’. Marton and Saljo (1976) explored the
development as determined through problem solving processes and strategies of learning used by students
under adult guidance or in collaboration with a more as well as the outcomes of that learning, in terms of
capable peer’ Vygotsky (1978). what is understood and remembered. They found two
For Vygotsky, ‘learning awakens a variety of different levels of processing which they called deep-
internal developmental processes that are able to level and surface-level processing. ‘In the case of
SELF- AND PEER-ASSESSMENTPAUL ORSMOND