Seeing Red: Hollywood’s Pixeled Skins: American Indians and Film

246 Pages·2013·1.478 MB·English

by  LeAnne Howe, Harvey Markowitz, Denise K. Cummings

S E E I N G
R E D
Ho l l y w o o d ’s
P i x e l e d S k i n s
t
american indian studies series
Gordon Henry, Series Editor
Editorial Board
Kimberly Blaeser Matthew Fletcher Patrick Lebeau
Joseph Bruchac P. Jane Hafen Michael Wilson
Heid Erdrich Winona LaDuke
ñ Shedding Skins: Four Sioux Poets
Edited by Adrian C. Louis | 978-0-87013-823-2
ñ Writing Home: Indigenous Narratives of Resistance
Michael D. Wilson | 978-0-87013-818-8
ñ National Monuments
Heid E. Erdrich | 978-0-87013-848-5
ñ Th e Indian Who Bombed Berlin and Other Stories
Ralph Salisbury | 978-0-87013-847-8
ñ Facing the Future: Th e Indian Child Welfare Act at 30
Edited by Matthew L. M. Fletcher, Wenona T. Singel, and Kathryn E. Fort
| 978-0-87013-860-7
ñ Dragonfl y Dance
Denise K. Lajimodiere | 978-0-87013-982-6
ñ Ogimawkwe Mitigwaki (Queen of the Woods)
Simon Pokagon | 978-0-87013-987-1
ñ Plain of Jars and Other Stories
Geary Hobson | 978-0-87013-998-7
ñ Document of Expectations
Devon Abbott Mihesuah | 978-1-61186-011-5
ñ Centering Anishinaabeg Studies: Understanding the World through Stories
Edited by Jill Doerfl er, Niigaanwewidam James Sinclair, and Heidi Kiiwetinepinesiik Stark
| 978-1-61186-067-2
ñ Seeing Red—Hollywood’s Pixeled Skins: American Indians and Film
Edited by LeAnne Howe, Harvey Markowitz, and Denise K. Cummings | 978-1-61186-081-8
s · Edit
g e
n d

i
m b
y

m
·
u
S E E I N G
C
L
e
. A
K
R E D n

n
e
e
s

i
H o l l y w o o d ’s H
n
o
e
w
D P i x e l e d S k i n s
e

·
·

z
t H
i
a
w r
o v
kraM y e
A m e r i c a n I n d i a n s a n d F i l m
Michigan State University Press · East Lansing
Copyright © 2013 by Michigan State University
i Th e paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements
of ansi/niso z39.48-1992 (r 1997) (Permanence of Paper).
p
Michigan State University Press
East Lansing, Michigan 48823-5245
Printed and bound in the United States of America.
19 18 17 16 15 14 13 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
library of congress cataloging-in-publication data
Seeing red : Hollywood’s pixeled skins : American Indians and film / edited by LeAnne Howe,
Harvey Markowitz, and Denise K. Cummings.
p. cm. — (American Indian studies series)
Includes bibliographical references.
isbn 978-1-60917-368-5 (ebook) — isbn 978-1-61186-081-8 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Indians in
motion pictures. 2. Western films—United States—History and criticism. I. Howe, LeAnne.
II. Markowitz, Harvey. III. Cummings, Denise K.
pn1995.9.i48s44 2012
791.43'6552—dc23
2012028494
Book design by Charlie Sharp, Sharp Des!gns, Lansing, MI
Cover design by David Drummond, Salamander Design, www.salamanderhill.com
Cover artwork is Edward Curtis, Paparazzi ©2006 Jim Denomie
and is used courtesy of the artist. All rights reserved.
G
Michigan State University Press is a member of the Green Press Initiative and is committed to
developing and encouraging ecologically responsible publishing practices. For more information
about the Green Press Initiative and the use of recycled paper in book publishing, please visit
www.greenpressinitiative.org.
Visit Michigan State University Press at www.msupress.org
Contents
introduction · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · vii
1
the silent red man
Th e Vanishing American (1925), by Jill Doerfler · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 3
Redskin (1929), by Cristina Stanciu · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 7
2
john ford and “the duke” on the warpath
Drums along the Mohawk (1939), by Joseph Bauerkemper · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 15
Fort Apache (1948), by Matthew Sakiestewa Gilbert · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 22
She Wore a Yellow Ribbon (1949), by Gwen N. Westerman · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 25
Th e Searchers (1956), by Susan Stebbins · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 30
3
the disney version
Peter Pan (1953), by David Martínez · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 39
Davy Crockett, King of the Wild Frontier (1955), by Cliff ord E. Trafzer · · · · · · · 44
Pocahontas (1995), by Jeff Berglund · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 49
4
mixed-bloods in distress
Duel in the Sun (1946), by Gary Harrington · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 57
Th e Unforgiven (1960), by LeAnne Howe · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 61
Th e Last of the Mohicans (1992), by Philip Deloria · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 65
Hidalgo (2004), by Jim Wilson · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 69
5
you mean, i’m a white guy?
Broken Arrow (1950), by Dean Rader · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 75
Little Big Man (1970), by Rebecca Kugel · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 79
A Man Called Horse (1970), by Harvey Markowitz· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 83
Dances with Wolves (1990), by James Riding In · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 89
6
indians with fangs
Th e Manitou (1978), by Harvey Markowitz · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 99
Wolfen (1981), by Carter Meland · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·104
17
walk a mile in my moccasins
Medicine River (1993), by Jacki Rand · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·111
Smoke Signals (1998), by LeAnne Howe · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·113
Th e Business of Fancydancing (2002), by Dean Rader · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·116
18
ndns: the young and the restless
Th e Indian in the Cupboard (1995), by Pauline Turner Strong · · · · · · · · · · · ·123
Th e Education of Little Tree (1997), by Daniel Heath Justice · · · · · · · · · · · · ·127
Th e Doe Boy (2001), by Allison Adelle Hedge Coke · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·133
Black Cloud (2004), by Maureen Trudelle Schwarz · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·139
19
death wish, indian-style
Navajo Joe (1966), by Th eo. Van Alst · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·147
Tell Th em Willie Boy Is Here (1969), Cliff ord E. Trafzer · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·154
Billy Jack (1971), by Scott Richard Lyons · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·158
10
love, indigenous-style
Waikiki Wedding (1937), by Jodi A. Byrd · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·167
Th e Savage Innocents (1960), by Th eo. Van Alst · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·172
Big Eden (2000), by P. Jane Hafen · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·179
11
workin’ for the great white father
Distant Drums (1951), by Denise K. Cummings · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·185
Th e Far Horizons (1955), by Frederick Hoxie · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·189
Th underheart (1992), by Paul M. Robertson · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·193
Windtalkers (2002), by Deborah Miranda · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·197
what the critics said . . . · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·201
Ratings Sheet · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·215
Further Reading · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·217
Contributors · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·219
Roll Credits · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·225
Introduction
Introduction
Establishing Shot
Th e first appearance of the movie review, or at least its direct ancestor, followed quickly on the
heels of the 1896 unveiling of “Edison’s greatest marvel,” the Vitascope: a “curious object” that
was capable of projecting moving life-size, color images on a white backdrop.1 While the New
York Times reporter who covered this highly publicized premiere had more to say about the
“marvel” itself than the content and artistic quality of the several featurettes it projected (many
of them, admittedly, plotless), he did pronounce the films “all wonderfully real and singularly
exhilarating”2 (Ebert translation: “Two Th umbs Up”3).
As the century turned, and movies became increasingly sophisticated in their cinematography
and narratives and gradually morphed from single to multi-reels, the contents of the articles
reporting on film and the film industry correspondingly evolved. By the end of the first decade
of the twentieth century, the staff s of several trade papers, most notably Moving Picture World
and Moving Picture News,4 included film critics who provided their exhibitor-subscribers with
opinion pieces on the state of the motion-picture business, as well as plot summaries and critical
evaluations of forthcoming and newly released moving pictures.
Given the concomitant rise in U.S. nationalism and world influence beginning in the
early twentieth century, it should come as no surprise that some of these features focused on
the challenges of creating movies that both reflected and promoted American identity and
exceptionalism. Consider the editorial “What Is an American Subject?,” which appeared in
the January 22, 1910, edition of Moving Picture World. Th e inspiration for this piece emerged
from its author’s discovery of two growing sentiments among U.S. motion-picture exhibitors,
both in keeping with the nationalistic temper of the times: first, “the desirability of providing
American film subjects for American motion picture audiences . . . [as] against the imported
film that . . . usually has the drawback of not dealing with a subject suitable for an American
audience,” and second, the “urgent necessity of American subjects made by American labor.”
Th e editorial went on to report that in actual fact, “Out of the forty films commented upon in
the last number of Moving Picture World, exactly one-half are foreign subjects and were made
abroad. Of those that were made in this country . . . not more than ten are of American themes
. . . distinctly American in characterization, scenery, and surroundings.” Turning once again to
feedback from exhibitors, the author observed:
|
vii
|
viii Introduction
Th ere seems to be amongst exhibitors, among whom we have made the inquiry, a strong and
increasing demand for Indian and Western subjects, and here probably we get the most satisfactory
answer to our own question. Indian and Western subjects may fairly be considered American,
because they deal with the aboriginal or original life of the pioneers of the country.5
As if to appease these exhibitors’ appetite for “Indian and Western subjects,” D. W. Griffith’s
Ramona, a seventeen-minute dramatization of Helen Hunt Jackson’s social reform cum romance
novel, opened a short five months aft er the publication of the World’s editorial.6 Recognizing
the importance of this premiere, the World prepared a “special release” featuring the film with
contributing editor Louis Reeves Harrison7 awarded the plum of covering the event. Being both
a news feature and a review, Harrison’s article provided readers with some interesting tidbits
on the premiere itself, including a demographic analysis of the packed house (mostly male, and
“rather above than below the average in quality”) and the shortcomings of a “mediocre” vaudeville
act that preceded the moving picture. Finally arriving at his assessment of Ramona, Harrison’s
prose suddenly mutated from prosaic to hyperbolic. “Ramona, as played,” he proclaimed, “is a
powerful drama of natural love.” Continuing his praise, he stated:
It is set amid scenes of surpassing beauty, so sympathetically chosen as to lend the whole play a
pure spirit of poesy; scene and dramatic art are so harmoniously blended that the picture play is a
veritable poem. Th e producers have advanced a step in the evolution of a new art and blazed the
way for additional, greater achievement.8
Th e advancement in film art was evidently not the only kind of “evolution” Harrison had in
mind. In his description of the audience’s response to Ramona, he reported:
Th e idea of the white man’s injustice to the Indian did not reach out into the sympathies of the
audience at all, but it seemed as though the playwright or director, or possibly both, had consciously
or unconsciously emphasized a bigger, broader, and finer theme, the great force responsible for
our origin, the one which has inspired poets of all ages, but recently discovered by scientists as the
most eff ective cause in the evolution of man. Natural Selection!9
Although Harrison used the term “natural selection,” emphasizing its importance with both
caps and an exclamation point, he considered this “great force” to be at work within and among
human societies as well as in the natural realm We are thus on solid ground identifying him as
a social Darwinist. Unfortunately, having speculated on the evolutionary agenda of Ramona’s
creators, he dropped the subject and turned to the task of summarizing the movie. Th is is a pity,
since we are left to speculate as to how Harrison arrived at his interpretation. Th e widespread
use of “social Darwinism” in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries to rationalize
“Manifest Destiny” and the nation’s continuing appropriation of Native lands may well have
contributed to his identification of “social selection” as the film’s “bigger, broader, and finer
theme.” Th is reading is especially compelling when one recalls that Harrison’s review appeared
only two years aft er the first Wanamaker Expedition (1908), which sought to memorialize
America’s “Vanishing Race” through a series of photogravure prints by Joseph K. Dixon that
recreated the nobility of traditional Indian life, but ended with apocalyptic images entitled “Th e
Sunset of a Dying Race” and “Th e Empty Saddle.”10
|
Introduction ix
And here we arrive at the intriguing question of where Hollywood’s past and present movie
makers and critics, such as Harrison, have acquired their beliefs about American Indian and
indigenous peoples and cultures. While we must assume that the individuals in these two
professions derived their ideas from a variety of sources, it also stands to reason that few, if
any, did so through socialization (i.e., by growing up American Indian) or in-depth research.
Rather, as is common with most non-Natives, filmmakers and critics alike have come by much
of what they presume to know about indigenous peoples from the rich cultural assemblage of
uncritical assumptions and stereotypes provided by the various popular media. It is important
to note that the elements comprising this stockpile have always been sufficiently abundant and
variegated to allow for the coexistence of radically divergent ideas about what type of beings
Indians are and what they ought to become. How else can one explain the presence of both
bloodthirsty and noble savages in films of the same era let alone in the same movie? What is
essential to recall is that most such depictions are manifestations of what Robert Berkhoff er
has called “the white man’s Indian” and are based on representations that, in some cases, are as
old as the Columbian encounter.11
We’ll have more to say concerning the representation and reception of the Hollywood Indian
aft er the following story about the origins of the present anthology.
[Dissolve.]
Flashback: An Account Based on True Events
Given 20/20 hindsight, it now seems inevitable that a conversation the editors of this book
shared in 2003 about American Indians in movies would lead us to collaborate on Seeing
Red—Hollywood’s Pixeled Skins. Th e book’s actual moment of conception occurred when one
of us uttered that immortal Hollywood cliché “Hey kids, let’s put on a show.”12 Uh, that is, “Hey
kids, let’s edit an anthology on Indians in Hollywood films.” For a brief moment, we imagined
ourselves as a threesome, one Mickey Rooney and two Judy Garlands: fresh-faced, earnest high
school types cast in Babes in Arms (1939). While it was Rooney who delivered this line in at
least three films, he and Garland together valiantly faced crisis aft er crisis with a song-and-dance
routine until the musical’s happy finale. So okay, we’re not fresh-faced, nor can we sing or dance,
but one of us may have actually said, “Hey kids, let’s edit an anthology.” And just like Garland
and Rooney, we’ve faced some challenges in production.
Our first challenge was to determine what kind of collection we wanted to create. Because
of our long-term interest in the subject of “Th e Hollywooden Indian” (a phrase Stanley Vestal
coined for the title of his excellent 1936 article),13 we knew from the start that we were entering
a field where many had gone before. With this in mind, we decided that our first task should be
to construct a typology that set forth the various kinds of resources that contained information
on American Indians in film. We identified the four following types:
1. Reference works, book-length monographs, articles, and audio and video treatments of rep-
resentations of U.S. minorities, including American Indians, in a variety of media. Recent
examples of multi-minority/multimedia resources include Stephanie Greco Larsen’s Media
and Minorities: Th e Politics of Race in News and Entertainment (2005); Media and Ethnic