Security and Defence: Ethical and Legal Challenges in the Face of Current Conflicts PDF
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Advanced Sciences and Technologies for Security Applications Juan Cayón Peña Editor Security and Defence: Ethical and Legal Challenges in the Face of Current Conflicts Advanced Sciences and Technologies for Security Applications SeriesEditor AnthonyJ.Masys,AssociateProfessor,DirectorofGlobalDisasterManagement, HumanitarianAssistanceandHomelandSecurity,UniversityofSouthFlorida, Tampa,USA AdvisoryEditors GiselaBichler,CaliforniaStateUniversity,SanBernardino,CA,USA ThirimachosBourlai,LaneDepartmentofComputerScienceandElectrical Engineering,MultispectralImageryLab(MILab),WestVirginiaUniversity, Morgantown,WV,USA ChrisJohnson,UniversityofGlasgow,Glasgow,UK PanagiotisKarampelas,HellenicAirForceAcademy,Attica,Greece ChristianLeuprecht,RoyalMilitaryCollegeofCanada,Kingston,ON,Canada EdwardC.Morse,UniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley,CA,USA DavidSkillicorn,Queen’sUniversity,Kingston,ON,Canada YoshikiYamagata,NationalInstituteforEnvironmentalStudies,Tsukuba,Ibaraki, Japan IndexedbySCOPUS The series Advanced Sciences and Technologies for Security Applications comprises interdisciplinary research covering the theory, foundations and domain-specific topics pertaining to security. Publications within the series are peer-reviewedmonographsandeditedworksintheareasof: – biological and chemical threat recognition and detection (e.g., biosensors, aerosols,forensics) – crisisanddisastermanagement – terrorism – cyber security and secure information systems (e.g., encryption, optical and photonicsystems) – traditionalandnon-traditionalsecurity – energy,foodandresourcesecurity – economicsecurityandsecuritization(includingassociatedinfrastructures) – transnationalcrime – humansecurityandhealthsecurity – social,politicalandpsychologicalaspectsofsecurity – recognition and identification (e.g., optical imaging, biometrics, authentication andverification) – smartsurveillancesystems – applications of theoretical frameworks and methodologies (e.g., grounded the- ory,complexity,networksciences,modellingandsimulation) Together, the high-quality contributions to this series provide a cross-disciplinary overviewofforefrontresearchendeavoursaimingtomaketheworldasaferplace. Theeditorsencourageprospectiveauthorstocorrespondwiththeminadvanceof submitting a manuscript. Submission of manuscripts should be made to the Editor-in-ChieforoneoftheEditors. Moreinformationaboutthisseriesathttps://link.springer.com/bookseries/5540 Juan Cayón Peña Editor Security and Defence: Ethical and Legal Challenges in the Face of Current Conflicts Editor JuanCayónPeña CampusdelaBerzosa UniversidadAntoniodeNebrija HoyodeManzanares,Spain ISSN1613-5113 ISSN2363-9466 (electronic) AdvancedSciencesandTechnologiesforSecurityApplications ISBN978-3-030-95938-8 ISBN978-3-030-95939-5 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-95939-5 ©TheEditor(s)(ifapplicable)andTheAuthor(s),underexclusivelicensetoSpringerNature SwitzerlandAG2022 Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.AllrightsaresolelyandexclusivelylicensedbythePublisher,whether thewholeorpartofthematerialisconcerned,specificallytherightsoftranslation,reprinting,reuse ofillustrations,recitation,broadcasting,reproductiononmicrofilmsorinanyotherphysicalway,and transmissionorinformationstorageandretrieval,electronicadaptation,computersoftware,orbysimilar ordissimilarmethodologynowknownorhereafterdeveloped. Theuseofgeneraldescriptivenames,registerednames,trademarks,servicemarks,etc.inthispublication doesnotimply,evenintheabsenceofaspecificstatement,thatsuchnamesareexemptfromtherelevant protectivelawsandregulationsandthereforefreeforgeneraluse. Thepublisher,theauthorsandtheeditorsaresafetoassumethattheadviceandinformationinthisbook arebelievedtobetrueandaccurateatthedateofpublication.Neitherthepublishernortheauthorsor theeditorsgiveawarranty,expressedorimplied,withrespecttothematerialcontainedhereinorforany errorsoromissionsthatmayhavebeenmade.Thepublisherremainsneutralwithregardtojurisdictional claimsinpublishedmapsandinstitutionalaffiliations. ThisSpringerimprintispublishedbytheregisteredcompanySpringerNatureSwitzerlandAG Theregisteredcompanyaddressis:Gewerbestrasse11,6330Cham,Switzerland Foreword: Rule of Law. Looking for a Warrior Ethos LetmestartthisbythankingthepeoplethathadtheideaofthisForeword,Prof.Juan CayonandProf.JesusMartin-RamirezfromNebrijaUniversity.Thankstobothof you for this opportunity given to an old soldier. Professor Cayón, an old friend of mine,suggestedthatIcouldusemyownexperiencetoaddress,thruthescreenwith my personal view on the importance of military people following the rule of law and,atthesametime,tryingtokeepanethicalbehavior.Frommyperspectiveisan importantduty,particularlyinthesetimesweareforcedtoconfrontwiththethreats of liquid postmodernism. My reply, there was no other possible, was an airborne “HOAH!”,ormuchpoliteandmuchbetter“AYEAYE,Sir,Iwilldomybest”. Armed Forces in Western democracies are established and organized in such a waythatnotbeingdemocraticontheirown,intheirdailywork(nobodyasksasoldier ifheorsheishappywithacertaintask),theirchainofcommandrespectsandfollows the rule of law. This term, rule of law, has been described in varying terms, but I believethatacomprehensivedefinition,suchastheoneusedbytheUnitedNations,is usefulinthiscontext.Theydefineruleoflawasaprincipleofgovernanceinwhichall persons,institutions,andentities,publicandprivate,includingthedifferentnations involved, are accountable to laws that are publicly promulgated, equally enforced andindependentlyadjudicated,andwhichareconsistentwithinternationalhuman rights norms and standards. It requires, as well, measures to ensure adherence to the principles of supremacy of law, equality before the law, accountability to the law, fairness in the application of the law, separation of powers, participation in decision-making,legalcertainty,avoidanceofarbitrariness,andproceduralandlegal transparency. All this is very important because the only way the Armed Forces can be sure theyusethepowergiventotheminthebestinterestofthepeopleisbysubordinating theirpossibilitytoexercisemilitarypowertothethreepowersofstate(legislative, executive, and judiciary). Please be aware that the actual subject of the national sovereigntyinmostoftheWesternnationsis,precisely,“we,thePeople”. Back in the seventeenth century when sovereignty resided upon the King, we use to refer to the Armed Forces as “His Majesty’s Armies”. Today we keep the traditionalname,butmilitariesarenolongersubjecttotheKingortheQueen.Today v vi Foreword:RuleofLaw.LookingforaWarriorEthos inmostofthesenations,includingmyown,thethreepowersofstatearerepresenting nationalsovereigntyinthenameofthepeopleandsoitisthegovernmentelectedby themtheonethatsetsthetermsofthenationaldefenseandanalyzesandfacesthe threatsandriskstothesubsistenceofSpainasanadvanceddemocraticsociety.In Spain,weusedtosayandsometimesweconvinceourpoliticalmastersthatpolicy isforthemasmuchasstrategyisformilitarypeople. ThisistheonlywayIseetoguaranteethatthemonopolisticuseofforcegranted totheArmedForcescanprovideinstitutionalstabilityandensuretheexistenceofa nation-state.Toachievesuchatask,ArmedForcesneedtoarriveatakindoflegal contractbetweenthemselvesandthenation.Thiscontractorclauseiswhatwecall “subordinationofmilitaryaffairstopoliticalpower”. Manynationsusesecularconstitutions,statutes,andmechanisms(lawenforce- ment,courts,andinstitutionstocorrectindividualcriminalbehavior)toimplement ruleoflaw.Butothernationsusedifferingimplementationmethods. IntheMiddleEast,forexample,thestructureofthelegalsystemisderivedfrom acombinationofsystems,includingreligionandtribalpractice,toformformaland informallegalmechanisms.InstateswithastrongIslamicinfluence,personalissues, suchasdivorceandmarriage,areresolvedinshariacourts.Thejudgesincriminal courtsmaybeeducatedtoapproachcriminalmattersdifferentlythanjudgestrained insharialaw.InCentralandSouthernAmerica,whatSpaniardsrefertoasHispanic- Americas,citizensbelievethattheydonothaveavoiceortheabilitytoobtainjustice from a system permeated by corruption, judicial failures, repressive police tactics, andthelegalmarginalizationofthemajorityofthepopulation.CitizensinCentral Asia,mostnotablytheCaucasusstates,assumethattheyaregovernedbyinstitutions thatareinept,corrupt,andrifewithnepotism. Insomepartsoftheworld,ruleoflawappearsundertheguiseofastrongauthor- itarian ruler exercising great influence over the “independence” of the judiciary system.Oftenrulerswithastrong“lawandordermentality”impedesocialchange thatmaythreatentheirholdsonpower. IntheSpanishcase,whenreferringtothegovernmentanditsexecutivepowers, ourconstitutionsaysinitsArticle97th,“theGovernmentdirectsinternalandforeign policy,thecivilandmilitaryadministrationandthedefenseofthestate…”.Spanish constitution tasks Armed Forces, constituted by the Army, the Navy, and the Air Forcetofulfilltheirmission:toguaranteesovereigntyandindependenceofSpain, todefenditsterritorialintegrityandconstitutionalorder.Constitutionalsoinstructs themtodofulfillthatmissioninaccordancewiththelawandtheprinciplesofthe constitutionitself.ThisistosaythatArmedForcesmustsubordinatetheiractions to the political powers and to adjust them to legality in order to legitimize their possibility of using lethal force while marrying up Armed Forces with the society theyserveto. In any case, there are two/three different sets of rules the Armed Forces must follow. Ontheonehand,theymustfollowtheirnationallaw,constitution,andthedifferent lawsderivedfromher.Thecapacitytousearmstoopposeexteriorandinnerthreats Foreword:RuleofLaw.LookingforaWarriorEthos vii tothenationinthiskindofmonopolisticexercisemakessoimportantformilitaries tofollowtherulesestablishedbythegovernmentandthelaw. Inbothcases,theruleoflawishardtotransformintotangiblesuccessesonthe ground,butitisstillveryimportanttodevelop,particularlywhenwearetryingtoset thegroundfora“comprehensivecivil-militaryapproach”aswe,membersofNATO, usuallydo.Thisisthereasonbehindmilitaryintenttoprepareourrankstoconfront thischallengewhenwedeploytoplaceslikeAfghanistaninwhichstabilityandrule of law are critical to security in the region and throughout the globe. The need to strengthen the rule of law will exist wherever people and their governments cope withconflictandinstability.NowonderwhyPresidentBarackObamastatedwhen addressingthetransitionfromInternationalSecurityAssistanceForce(ISAF)tothe ResoluteSupportMission:“Westerncommitmenttotheruleoflawisfundamentalto oureffortstobuildaninternationalorderthatiscapableofconfrontingtheemerging challenges of the 21st century”. As it happened in Afghanistan, Western Nations willcontinuetoengageinstatesatriskoffailure,infailedstateswherethecentral government is so weakened that the people have virtually returned to the natural state, in states emerging from long periods of conflict such as Afghanistan, and in statesinpeacefulpostconflictrebuildingperiods. Ontheotherhandwheninoperationsabroad,theyneedtocopewiththelawand constitutionofthecountriesinwhichtheyaredeployed.ArmedForcesmustfollow theLawofConflictalsoknownastheLAWOFARMEDCONFLICTorthe“Geneva Conventions”thatcomprisefourtreatiesandthreeadditionalprotocols.Allofthem together are able to establish the standards of international law for humanitarian treatmentinwartime. ItwasaSwissbusinessman,Mr.HenryDunant,Co-recipientoftheNobelPeace Prizein1901whenvisitingwoundedsoldiersaftertheBattleofSolferinoin1859 thatrealizedthelackoffacilities,personnel,andmedicalaidavailabletosoldiers.His wartimeexperienceinspiredhimtoproposeapermanentreliefagencyforhumani- tarianaidintimesofwarandatreatyrecognizingtheneutralityofthisagencyand allowinghertoprovideaidinacombatzone.Thisproposalledtotheestablishment of the Red Cross and later on to the Geneva Convention as the first codified inter- nationaltreatythatcoveredthesickandwoundedsoldiersonthebattlefield.Years later,theSwissgovernmentinvitedEuropeancountries,aswellastheUSA,Brazil, andMexico,toattendanofficialdiplomaticconference.Sixteencountriesreplied, andtheconferenceadoptedthefirstGenevaConventionsignedbytwelvecountries Switzerland,Belgium,Denmark,France,Italy,theNetherlands,Portugal,andSpain, amongthem. Inreality,thetermGenevaConventionusuallydenotestheagreementsof1949, negotiatedintheaftermathoftheSecondWorldWarwhichupdatedthetermsofthe previoustreatiesandaddedtwonewconventions.TheGenevaConventionsexten- sivelydefinedthebasicrightsofwartimeprisoners(civiliansandmilitarypersonnel), establishedprotectionsforthewoundedandsick,andestablishedprotectionsforthe civiliansinandaroundtheareaofoperations.Thetreatiesof1949wereratified,in theirentiretyorwithreservations,by196countries.Moreover,theGenevaConven- tionsalsodefinetherightsandprotectionsaffordedtonon-combatantsbuttheydonot viii Foreword:RuleofLaw.LookingforaWarriorEthos addresstheuseofweaponsofwar,whicharethesubjectoftheHagueConventions, northebiochemicalwarfarethatbelongstotheGenevaProtocol. For militaries across the world, it is very important to comply with the Geneva Conventions. It is important for the soldier, for the commander and even for the countrybecauseeverymemberoftheArmedForces,whateverhisorherrankis,has a personal responsibility not only to comply with the law of armed conflict but to ensurethatitiscompliedwithbyothersandtotakeactionintheeventofviolations. There is no possibility for any member of the Armed Forces to invoke superior ordersintheirdefense.Violationsofthelawareconsideredwarcrimesandwillbe prosecuted in national courts or in international tribunals such as the International CriminalCourt. Despite the difficulties of formulating threats and risks in an environment so respectful of peace as the one in which Western democracies live and breathe, the truthisthatoutsidethesewallstherearethreats,andthereareriskstothecontinuity ofanyparticularnation. Theworldremainsavolatile,uncertain,anddangerousplacewithstates,transna- tional organizations, and non-state actors all working in their own self-interests— which may or may not be aligned with the national interest of the Western world. ThereislittlechoiceforWesterncountriesbuttomaintainanactiveroletocounter, impede,anddissuadehostilestates,non-stateactors,andtransnationalcriminalorga- nizations. Working in concert with other nations, international organizations, and Non-GovernmentalOrganisations(NGOs),wemustmitigatethreatsthroughtheuse ofallelementsofnationalpowerandfocusonruleoflawdevelopmentasameans toprovidestability. Ifcombatoperationsarerequiredtowrestcontrolofanationoralargegeographic areafromahostileforceorifanationbecomesafailedstaterequiringinternational intervention,eachparticipatingnationmustplanforandbepreparedtoimplement programstoprovidesecurityandstability.Usingasmuchoftheindigenouscriminal justicesystemassoonaspossibleshouldprotectthepeoplefromharmandhelpthem tobegindevelopingasenseof“nation”toformthecoreofthenationthatwillrise fromtheashesoftheconflict. Rule of law development requires a whole-of-government approach in which synchronizationandcoordinationamongthemilitary,Embassyteams,international organizations,andNGOsarecritical.Inanoperationwithakineticcomponent,or wherethesecuritysituationmaybeunstable,themilitarymusttaketheleadindevel- opingthesecurityumbrellausingthecriminaljusticesystemforcounterinsurgency andprovidinggeneralsecurityforthepeople.Otherrulesoflawprograms,focused onmoregeneralizeddevelopmentefforts,havealongertimehorizonandcanmore effectivelyflourishafterthesecuritysituationismorestable. Forthosewhohavedeployedtoorarefamiliarwithwar-tornareasorfailedstates, itisclearthatmilitaryforcealonewillnotbeabletoestablishorimplementruleof law.Legalsystemsandinstitutionstakeyearstodevelopbasedonavarietyoffactors, includinghostnationculture,religion,andtoleratedlevelsofcorruption,andwhether coalition members bring with them an ethnocentric bias that could complicate the establishmentofruleoflaw.Inat-risk,failed,emerging,andpostconflictstates,the Foreword:RuleofLaw.LookingforaWarriorEthos ix militarycansettheconditionsforruleoflawdevelopmentandstabilitybyfocusing onthestate’scriminaljusticesystem. Thesituationisnotthesameasitwasfifty,thirty,noteventenyearsago.That is why the current global security landscape is part of the major threats that can affecttheWest.Globalsecurityisaffectedbyglobalthreatsliketheonesposedby China,Russia,Iran,andNorthKoreabutalsoandmuchclosertous,liketheones represented by Violent Extremist Organizations (VEO) and some rogue states or unstableoneslikethecountrieswehaveinpartsofoursouthernfrontier. Wehaveseenthis2021aclearandpresentdangertooursovereignty,andwehave tested how difficult is the life on the vallado as Colonel Jessup once stated in the movie“Afewgoodmen”.Thethreatanalysiswouldbebetterandtheresultseasier ifthemilitarywereheardbyourpoliticalmasters,butunfortunatelythisisnotthe usualcase.Iguesswecanblamesomeofthereasonsbehindthismistrustbetween civilian and military relations on history, tradition and on the wrong approach to discipline that affects some military leaders. Sometimes we see them or some of themtryingtoknowwhattheirbosses(nomatterifmilitaryorcivilian)wantbefore submittingtheirproposals.Ifmilitaryleaderstrytosaywhatthepoliticianswantto hear, being politically correct and not professionals,itwillbe difficult todefend a militarypointofviewconsistentwiththemissiongiventotheArmedForcesandthe analysis,Iwasadvocatingtowillbeflaw.Inmilitarylife,itisandwillalwaysbevery difficulttoconcurineverythingwithourpoliticalmasters,andthisiswhyGeneral Marshalltryingtoexplainhowhehandledhissomehowdifficultrelationshipwith theUSpoliticalleadershipstated:“Ihavealwaysprovidedbluntandcandidadvice, Ihavealwaystriedtokeepmydisagreementsinacloseholdenvironment,andIhave alwaysimplementedfaithfullydecisionsthatwentagainstmine”.This,personally, iswhatItriedtofollowinmyowncareer,particularlyinmytourofdutyasChief ofDefenseSpain. Butthereisonemoreimportantthing,theportionreferredtoethicalbehavior. IfthereissomethingIampositiveaboutisthatinourquestforlegitimacy,weneed tohavecombatantswithsuperiorethicalbehavior.Weneedsoldiersableandwilling to perform their duties respecting the law but warriors anyway. Warriors invested inatruefightingspirit,abletoengageincombatwhentheirownlifeisatrisk.We need to have and to train soldiers inspired by a warrior ethos, people with a clear compromiseandwillingtorisktheirlives,tofightforahighergoal. BecausethesecondthingIampositiveaboutisthatthenextgenerationor,atbest, thefollowingonewillhavetocallitsArmedForcesintoaction.Atthatverysame moment,whentherollcallstarts,wecannotfindourArmedForceswellpreparedto fightfiresortostabilizemoreorlessdistantcountries,andweneedthemprepared fortheirtruemission,toguaranteeoursovereigntyandindependenceandso,ableto fightforitsdefenseandwillingtokeepintactitsterritorialintegrityandconstitutional order. Pleasebearinmindthatthislackofpropertrainingandpreparationhashappened before.Twentyyearsago,theSpanishGovernmentdecidedtoanswerthecallofone ofitsNATOalliesshortlyaftertheterribleeventsof9/11.Butthe“waronterror”
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