Sculpture

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Sculpture
“Sculptor” redirects here. For other uses, see Sculptor
(disambiguation)andSculpture(disambiguation).
Sculptureisthebranchofthevisualartsthatoperates
TheDyingGaul, or TheCapitolineGaul[1] aRomanmarble
copyofaHellenisticworkofthelate3rdcenturyBCECapitoline
Museums,Rome
inthreedimensions. Itisoneoftheplasticarts. Durable
sculpturalprocessesoriginallyusedcarving(theremoval
of material) and modelling (the addition of material, as
clay),instone,metal,ceramics,woodandothermateri-
alsbut,sincemodernism,shiftsinsculpturalprocessled Michelangelo'sMoses,(c.1513–1515),housedinthechurchof
toanalmostcompletefreedomofmaterialsandprocess. SanPietroinVincoliinRome. Thesculpturewascommissioned
A wide variety of materials may be worked by removal in1505byPopeJuliusIIforhistomb.
such as carving, assembled by welding or modelling, or
molded,orcast.
Sculpture in stone survives far better than works of art
in perishable materials, and often represents the major-
ity of the surviving works (other than pottery) from an-
cientcultures,thoughconverselytraditionsofsculpturein
woodmayhavevanishedalmostentirely. However,most
ancientsculpturewasbrightlypainted,andthishasbeen
lost.[2]
Sculpturehasbeencentralinreligiousdevotioninmany
cultures, and until recent centuries large sculptures, too
expensive for private individuals to create, were usually
anexpressionofreligionorpolitics. Thosecultureswhose
sculptureshavesurvivedinquantitiesincludethecultures
of the Ancient Mediterranean, India and China, as well
asmanyinSouthAmericaandAfrica.
AssyrianlamassugateguardianfromKhorsabad,c. 721–800
The Western tradition of sculpture began in Ancient BCE
Greece, and Greece is widely seen as producing great
masterpieces in the classical period. During the Mid-
1
2 2 PURPOSESANDSUBJECTS
usedbothforarchitecturalsculpture,whichisattachedto
buildings,andforsmall-scalesculpturedecoratingother
objects, as in much pottery, metalwork and jewellery.
Relief sculpture may also decorate steles, upright slabs,
usuallyofstone,oftenalsocontaininginscriptions.
Another basic distinction is between subtractive carving
techniques,whichremovematerialfromanexistingblock
or lump, for example of stone or wood, and modelling
techniqueswhichshapeorbuilduptheworkfromthema-
terial. Techniquessuchascasting,stampingandmould-
ing use an intermediate matrix containing the design to
producethework;manyoftheseallowtheproductionof
severalcopies.
Netsukeoftigresswithtwocubs,mid-19thcenturyJapan,ivory
withshellinlay
OpenairBuddhistrockreliefsattheLongmenGrottos,China
The term “sculpture” is often used mainly to describe
TheAngeloftheNorthbyAntonyGormley,1998
large works, which are sometimes called monumental
sculpture, meaning either or both of sculpture that is
dle Ages, Gothic sculpture represented the agonies and large,orthatisattachedtoabuilding. Butthetermprop-
passions of the Christian faith. The revival of classi- erlycoversmanytypesofsmallworksinthreedimensions
cal models in the Renaissance produced famous sculp- using the same techniques, including coins and medals,
turessuchasMichelangelo'sDavid. Modernistsculpture hardstonecarvings,atermforsmallcarvingsinstonethat
moved away from traditional processes and the empha- cantakedetailedwork.
sisonthedepictionofthehumanbody,withthemaking
The very large or “colossal” statue has had an enduring
of constructed sculpture, and the presentation of found
appealsinceantiquity;thelargestonrecordat128m(420
objectsasfinishedartworks.
ft)isthe2002ChineseSpringTempleBuddha. Another
grandformofportraitsculptureistheequestrianstatueof
arideronhorse,whichhasbecomerareinrecentdecades.
1 Types of sculpture Thesmallestformsoflife-sizeportraitsculpturearethe
“head”, showing just that, or the bust, a representation
ofapersonfromthechestup. Smallformsofsculpture
A basic distinction is between sculpture in the round,
includethefigurine,normallyastatuethatisnomorethan
free-standingsculpture,suchasstatues,notattached(ex-
18inchestall,andforreliefstheplaquette,medalorcoin.
cept possibly at the base) to any other surface, and the
varioustypesofrelief,whichareatleastpartlyattached Modern and contemporary art have added a number of
to a background surface. Relief is often classified by non-traditionalformsofsculpture,includingsoundsculp-
the degree of projection from the wall into low or bas- ture, light sculpture, environmental art, environmental
relief, high relief, and sometimes an intermediate mid- sculpture, street art sculpture, kinetic sculpture (involv-
relief. Sunk-relief is a technique restricted to Ancient ingaspectsofphysicalmotion),landart,andsite-specific
Egypt. Relief is the usual sculptural medium for large art. Sculptureisanimportantformofpublicart. Acol-
figure groups and narrative subjects, which are difficult lection of sculpture in a garden setting can be called a
to accomplish in the round, and is the typical technique sculpturegarden.
3
somemorethantwicehumansize,havedisturbedmany
ideas held about early Chinese civilization, since only
much smaller bronzes were previously known.[4] Some
undoubtedlyadvancedcultures,suchastheIndusValley
civilization,appeartohavehadnomonumentalsculpture
atall, thoughproducingverysophisticatedfigurinesand
seals. TheMississippiancultureseemstohavebeenpro-
gressing towards its use, with small stone figures, when
it collapsed. Other cultures, such as Ancient Egypt and
theEasterIslandculture,seemtohavedevotedenormous
resourcestoverylarge-scalemonumentalsculpturefrom
averyearlystage.
MoaifromEasterIsland,wheretheconcentrationofresources
onlargesculpturemayhavehadseriouspoliticaleffects.
2 Purposes and subjects
Oneofthemostcommonpurposesofsculptureisinsome
formofassociationwithreligion. Cultimagesarecom-
moninmanycultures,thoughtheyareoftennotthecolos-
salstatuesofdeitieswhichcharacterizedAncientGreek
art, like the Statue of Zeus at Olympia. The actual cult
imagesintheinnermostsanctuariesofEgyptiantemples,
ofwhichnonehavesurvived,wereevidentlyrathersmall, MedalofJohnVIIIPalaeologus,c. 1435,byPisanello,thefirst
even in the largest temples. The same is often true in portraitmedal,amediumessentiallymadeforcollecting.
Hinduism, where the very simple and ancient form of
thelingamisthemostcommon. Buddhismbroughtthe Thecollectingofsculpture,includingthatofearlierperi-
sculpture of religious figures to East Asia, where there ods, goes back some 2,000 years in Greece, China and
seemstohavebeennoearlierequivalenttradition,though Mesoamerica, and many collections were available on
againsimpleshapeslikethebiandcongprobablyhadre- semi-publicdisplaylongbeforethemodernmuseumwas
ligioussignificance. invented. Fromthe20thcenturytherelativelyrestricted
range of subjects found in large sculpture expanded
Small sculptures as personal possessions go back to the
greatly, with abstract subjects and the use or represen-
earliest prehistoric art, and the use of very large sculp-
tationofanytypeofsubjectnowcommon. Todaymuch
ture as public art, especially to impress the viewer with
sculptureismadeforintermittentdisplayingalleriesand
thepowerofaruler,goesbackatleasttotheGreatSphinx
museums, and the ability to transport and store the in-
ofsome4,500yearsago. Inarchaeologyandarthistory
creasingly large works is a factor in their construction.
the appearance, and sometimes disappearance, of large
Small decorative figurines, most often in ceramics, are
or monumental sculpture in a culture is regarded as of
aspopulartoday(thoughstrangelyneglectedbymodern
greatsignificance,thoughtracingtheemergenceisoften
andContemporaryart)astheywereintheRococo,orin
complicated by the presumed existence of sculpture in
AncientGreecewhenTanagrafigurineswereamajorin-
woodandotherperishablematerialsofwhichnorecord
dustry, or in East Asian and Pre-Columbian art. Small
remains;[3]thetotempoleisanexampleofatraditionof
sculpted fittings for furniture and other objects go well
monumentalsculptureinwoodthatwouldleavenotraces
back into antiquity, as in the Nimrud ivories, Begram
for archaeology. The ability to summon the resources
ivoriesandfindsfromthetombofTutankhamun.
to create monumental sculpture, by transporting usually
very heavy materials and arranging for the payment of Portrait sculpture began in Egypt, where the Narmer
what are usually regarded as full-time sculptors, is con- Palette shows a ruler of the 32nd century BCE, and
sideredamarkofarelativelyadvancedcultureinterms Mesopotamia, where we have 27 surviving statues of
of social organization. Recent unexpected discoveries Gudea, whoruledLagashc. 2144–2124BCE.InAn-
of Ancient Chinese bronze age figures at Sanxingdui, cient Greece and Rome the erection of a portrait statue
4 3 MATERIALSANDTECHNIQUES
in a public place was almost the highest mark of hon-
our,andtheambitionoftheelite,whomightalsobede-
picted on a coin,[5] In other cultures such as Egypt and
theNearEastpublicstatueswerealmostexclusivelythe
preserveoftheruler,withotherwealthypeopleonlybe-
ingportrayedintheirtombs. Rulersaretypicallytheonly
peoplegivenportraitsinPre-Columbiancultures,begin-
ningwiththeOlmeccolossalheadsofabout3,000years
ago. EastAsianportraitsculpturewasentirelyreligious,
with leading clergy being commemorated with statues,
especiallythefoundersofmonasteries,butnotrulers,or
ancestors. TheMediterraneantraditionrevived,initially
onlyfortombeffigiesandcoins,intheMiddleAges,but
expandedgreatlyintheRenaissance,whichinventednew
formssuchasthepersonalportraitmedal.
Animals are, with the human figure, the earliest subject
forsculpture, andhavealwaysbeenpopular, sometimes
realistic,butoftenimaginarymonsters;inChinaanimals
andmonstersarealmosttheonlytraditionalsubjectsfor
stone sculpture outside tombs and temples. The king-
dom of plants is important only in jewellery and deco-
rative reliefs, but these form almost all the large sculp-
ture of Byzantine art and Islamic art, and are very im-
portantinmostEurasiantraditions,wheremotifssuchas
thepalmetteandvinescrollhavepassedeastandwestfor Sumerian male worshipper, alabaster with shell eyes,
overtwomillennia. 2750−2600B.C.
Oneformofsculpturefoundinmanyprehistoriccultures
around the world is specially enlarged versions of ordi- paint to time, or restorers. Many different painting
narytools,weaponsorvesselscreatedinimpracticalpre- techniques have been used in making sculpture, includ-
ciousmaterials,foreithersomeformofceremonialuseor ing tempera, oil painting, gilding, house paint, aerosol,
displayorasofferings. Jadeorothertypesofgreenstone enamelandsandblasting.[2][6]
were used in China, Olmec Mexico, and Neolithic Eu-
Manysculptorsseeknewwaysandmaterialstomakeart.
rope,andinearlyMesopotamialargepotteryshapeswere
OneofPabloPicasso'smostfamoussculpturesincluded
producedinstone. BronzewasusedinEuropeandChina
bicycle parts. Alexander Calder and other modernists
forlargeaxesandblades,liketheOxboroughDirk.
madespectacularuseofpaintedsteel. Sincethe1960s,
acrylicsandotherplasticshavebeenusedaswell. Andy
Goldsworthy makes his unusually ephemeral sculptures
3 Materials and techniques fromalmostentirelynaturalmaterialsinnaturalsettings.
Somesculpture,suchasicesculpture,sandsculpture,and
gassculpture,isdeliberatelyshort-lived. Recentsculptors
The materials used in sculpture are diverse, changing have used stained glass, tools, machine parts, hardware
throughouthistory. Theclassicmaterials,withoutstand- and consumer packaging to fashion their works. Sculp-
ingdurability,aremetal,especiallybronze,stoneandpot- torssometimesusefoundobjects,andChinesescholars’
tery,withwood,boneandantlerlessdurablebutcheaper rockshavebeenappreciatedformanycenturies.
options. Precious materials such as gold, silver, jade,
and ivory are often used for small luxury works, and
sometimesinlargerones,asinchryselephantinestatues. 3.1 Stone
Morecommonandlessexpensivematerialswereusedfor
sculpture for wider consumption, including hardwoods
Stone sculpture is an ancient activity where pieces of
(suchasoak,box/boxwood,andlime/linden); terracotta
roughnaturalstoneareshapedbythecontrolledremoval
and other ceramics, wax (a very common material for
ofstone. Owingtothepermanenceofthematerial, ev-
models for casting, and receiving the impressions of
idence can be found that even the earliest societies in-
cylindersealsandengravedgems), andcastmetalssuch
dulged in some form of stone work, though not all ar-
aspewterandzinc(spelter). Butavastnumberofother
easoftheworldhavesuchabundanceofgoodstonefor
materialshavebeenusedaspartofsculptures,inethno-
carving as Egypt, Greece, India and most of Europe.
graphicandancientworksasmuchasmodernones.
Petroglyphs(alsocalledrockengravings)areperhapsthe
Sculptures are often painted, but commonly lose their earliestform: imagescreatedbyremovingpartofarock
3.3 Glass 5
Modernreconstructionoftheoriginalpaintedappearance(based
onscientificpigmentanalysis)ofaLateArchaicGreekmarble
figurefromtheTempleofAphaea,c.500BCE LudwigGies, castironplaquette, 8x9.8cm, “Refugees1914–
1915”
surfacewhichremainsinsitu,byincising,pecking,carv-
ing, and abrading. Monumental sculpture covers large Castingisagroupofmanufacturingprocessesbywhich
works, and architectural sculpture, which is attached to aliquidmaterial(bronze,copper,glass,aluminum,iron)
buildings. Hardstone carving is the carving for artis- is(usually)pouredintoamold,whichcontainsahollow
ticpurposesofsemi-preciousstonessuchasjade,agate, cavityofthedesiredshape,andthenallowedtosolidify.
onyx,rockcrystal,sardorcarnelian,andageneralterm Thesolidcastingisthenejectedorbrokenouttocomplete
for an object made in this way. Alabaster or mineral theprocess,[8] althoughafinalstageof“coldwork”may
gypsumisasoftmineralthatiseasytocarveforsmaller followonthefinishedcast. Castingmaybeusedtoform
works and still relatively durable. Engraved gems are hot liquid metals or various materials that cold set after
smallcarvedgems, includingcameos, originallyusedas mixingofcomponents(suchasepoxies,concrete,plaster
sealrings. andclay). Castingismostoftenusedformakingcomplex
shapesthatwouldbeotherwisedifficultoruneconomical
Thecopyingofanoriginalstatueinstone,whichwasvery
tomakebyothermethods. Theoldestsurvivingcastingis
important for Ancient Greek statues, which are nearly
a copper Mesopotamian frog from 3200 BC.[9] Specific
all known from copies, was traditionally achieved by
techniquesincludelost-waxcasting,plastermoldcasting
"pointing",alongwithmorefreehandmethods. Pointing
andsandcasting.
involvedsettingupagridofstringsquaresonawooden
frame surrounding the original, and then measuring the
position on the grid and the distance between grid and 3.3 Glass
statueofaseriesofindividualpoints,andthenusingthis
informationtocarveintotheblockfromwhichthecopy
ismade.[7]
3.2 Metal
Bronze and related copper alloys are the oldest and still
themostpopularmetalsforcastmetalsculptures;acast
bronzesculptureisoftencalledsimplya“bronze”. Com-
mon bronze alloys have the unusual and desirable prop-
ertyofexpandingslightlyjustbeforetheyset,thusfilling
the finest details of a mold. Their strength and lack of
brittleness(ductility)isanadvantagewhenfiguresinac-
tionaretobecreated,especiallywhencomparedtovar-
iousceramicorstonematerials(seemarblesculpturefor DaleChihuly,2006,(Blownglass)
severalexamples). Goldisthesoftestandmostprecious
metal, and very important in jewellery; with silver it is Glassmaybeusedforsculpturethroughawiderangeof
softenoughtobeworkedwithhammersandothertools workingtechniques,thoughtheuseofitforlargeworks
aswellascast;repousséandchasingareamongthetech- is a recent development. It can be carved, with con-
niquesusedingoldandsilversmithing. siderable difficulty; the Roman Lycurgus Cup is all but
6 4 SOCIALSTATUSOFSCULPTORS
unique.[10] Hot casting can be done by ladling molten
glassintomoldsthathavebeencreatedbypressingshapes
intosand,carvedgraphiteordetailedplaster/silicamolds.
Kiln casting glass involves heating chunks of glass in a
kilnuntiltheyareliquidandflowintoawaitingmoldbe-
low it in the kiln. Glass can also be blown and/or hot
sculptedwithhandtoolseitherasasolidmassoraspart
ofablownobject.
DetailofJesusjustdead,Spanish,woodandpolychrome,1793.
than the wood, and is often missing in surviving pieces.
Paintedwoodisoftentechnicallydescribedas“woodand
polychrome". Typicallyalayerofgessoorplasterisap-
pliedtothewood,andthenthepaintisappliedtothat.
AcarvedwoodenBodhisattvafromtheSongdynasty960–1279, 4 Social status of sculptors
ShanghaiMuseum
3.4 Pottery
Potteryisoneoftheoldestmaterialsforsculpture,aswell
asclaybeingthemediuminwhichmanysculpturescast
in metal are originally modelled for casting. Sculptors
oftenbuildsmallpreliminaryworkscalledmaquettesof
ephemeral materials such as plaster of Paris, wax, un-
firedclay,orplasticine.[11] Manycultureshaveproduced
pottery which combines a function as a vessel with a
sculptural form, and small figurines have often been as
popular as they are in modern Western culture. Stamps
andmouldswereusedbymostancientcivilizations,from
AncientRomeandMesopotamiatoChina.[12]
3.5 Woodcarving
Wood carving has been extremely widely practiced, but
survivesmuchlesswellthantheothermainmaterials,be-
ingvulnerabletodecay,insectdamage,andfire. Itthere-
fore forms an important hidden element in the art his-
tory of many cultures.[3] Outdoor wood sculpture does
notlastlonginmostpartsoftheworld,sothatwehave
littleideahowthetotempoletraditiondeveloped. Many
Nuremberg sculptor Adam Kraft, self-portrait from St Lorenz
of the most important sculptures of China and Japan in
Church,1490s.
particularareinwood,andthegreatmajorityofAfrican
sculptureandthatofOceaniaandotherregions.
Worldwide,sculptorshaveusuallybeentradesmenwhose
Woodislight, sosuitableformasksandothersculpture workisunsigned;insometraditions,forexampleChina,
intended to be carried, and can take very fine detail. It wheresculpturedidnotsharetheprestigeofliteratipaint-
isalsomucheasiertoworkthanstone. Ithasbeenvery ing, this has affected the status of sculpture itself.[13]
oftenpaintedaftercarving,butthepaintwearslesswell EveninAncientGreece,wheresculptorssuchasPhidias
6.1 Prehistoricperiods 7
became famous, they appear to have retained much the 6.1 Prehistoricperiods
same social status as other artisans, and perhaps not
much greater financial rewards, although some signed
theirworks.[14]IntheMiddleAgesartistssuchasthe12th
century Gislebertus sometimes signed their work, and
weresoughtafterbydifferentcities, especiallyfromthe
TrecentoonwardsinItaly,withfiguressuchasArnolfodi
Cambio,andNicolaPisanoandhissonGiovanni. Gold-
smithsandjewellers,dealingwithpreciousmaterialsand
often doubling as bankers, belonged to powerful guilds
and had considerable status, often holding civic office.
Many sculptors also practised in other arts; Andrea del
Verrocchioalsopainted,andGiovanniPisano,Michelan-
gelo,andJacopoSansovinowerearchitects. Somesculp-
tors maintained large workshops. Even in the Renais-
sance the physical nature of the work was perceived by
Leonardo da Vinci and others as pulling down the sta-
tus of sculpture in the arts, though the reputation of VenusofHohleFels(alsoknownastheVenusofSchelklingen;
is an Upper Paleolithic Venus figurine hewn from ivory of a
Michelangeloperhapsputthislong-heldideatorest.
mammothtuskfoundin2008nearSchelklingen,Germany. Itis
FromtheHighRenaissanceartistssuchasMichelangelo, datedtobetween35,000and40,000yearsago,belongingtothe
Leone Leoni and Giambologna could become wealthy, earlyAurignacian,attheverybeginningoftheUpperPaleolithic,
andennobled,andenterthecircleofprinces,afterape- whichisassociatedwiththeassumedearliestpresenceofHomo
riodofsharpargumentovertherelativestatusofsculp- sapiensinEurope(Cro-Magnon).AlongwiththeLöwenmensch,
tureandpainting.[15]Muchdecorativesculptureonbuild- itistheoldestundisputedexampleofUpperPaleolithicartand
figurativeprehistoricartingeneral.
ingsremainedatrade,butsculptorsproducingindividual
pieceswererecognisedonalevelwithpainters. Fromthe
18th century or earlier sculpture also attracted middle- Theearliestundisputedexamplesofsculpturebelongto
classstudents,althoughitwasslowertodosothanpaint- the Aurignacian culture, which was located in Europe
ing. Womensculptorstooklongertoappearthanwomen and southwest Asia and active at the beginning of the
painters,andwerelessprominentuntilthe20thcentury. Upper Paleolithic. As well as producing some of the
earliestknowncaveart,thepeopleofthisculturedevel-
opedfinely-craftedstonetools,manufacturingpendants,
bracelets, ivory beads, and bone-flutes, as well as three-
5 Anti-sculpture movements
dimensionalfigurines.[17][18]
The 30 cm tall Löwenmensch found in the Hohlenstein
Aniconism remained restricted to Judaism, which did StadelareaofGermanyisananthropomorphiclion-man
notacceptfigurativesculptureuntilthe19thcentury,[16] figure carved from woolly mammoth ivory. It has been
Zoroastrian and some other religions, before expand- datedtoabout35-40,000BP,makingit, alongwiththe
ingtoEarlyBuddhismandEarlyChristianity,neitherof Venus of Hohle Fels, the oldest known uncontested ex-
whichinitiallyacceptedlargesculptures. InbothChris- ampleoffigurativeart.[19]
tianity and Buddhism these early views were later re-
Much surviving prehistoric art is small portable sculp-
versed,andsculpturebecameverysignificant,especially
tures,withasmallgroupoffemaleVenusfigurinessuch
inBuddhism. ChristianEasternOrthodoxyhasneverac-
astheVenusofWillendorf(24-26,000BP)foundacross
ceptedmonumentalsculpture,andIslamhasconsistently
central Europe.[20] The Swimming Reindeer of about
rejected nearly all figurative sculpture, except for very
13,000 years ago is one of the finest of a number of
small figures in reliefs and some animal figures that ful-
Magdaleniancarvingsinboneorantlerofanimalsinthe
fill a useful function, like the famous lions supporting a
art of the Upper Paleolithic, although they are outnum-
fountainintheAlhambra. ManyformsofProtestantism
bered by engraved pieces, which are sometimes classi-
also do not approve of religious sculpture. There has
fiedassculpture.[21]Twoofthelargestprehistoricsculp-
been much iconoclasm of sculpture from religious mo-
turescanbefoundattheTucd'AudobertcavesinFrance,
tives,fromtheEarlyChristians,theBeeldenstormofthe
where around 12-17,000 years ago a masterful sculptor
Protestant Reformation to the 2001 destruction of the
usedaspatula-likestonetoolandfingerstomodelapair
BuddhasofBamyanbytheTaliban.
oflargebisoninclayagainstalimestonerock.[22]
WiththebeginningoftheMesolithicinEuropefigurative
sculpture greatly reduced,[23] and remained a less com-
6 History of sculpture
monelementinartthanreliefdecorationofpracticalob-
jects until the Roman period, despite some works such
8 6 HISTORYOFSCULPTURE
astheGundestrupcauldronfromtheEuropeanIronAge stelae, votive offerings, or ones probably commemorat-
andtheBronzeAgeTrundholmsunchariot.[24] ingvictoriesandshowingfeasts,arealsofoundfromtem-
ples,whichunlikemoreofficialoneslackinscriptionsthat
(cid:15) Löwenmensch, from Hohlenstein-Stadel, now wouldexplainthem;[30]thefragmentarySteleoftheVul-
turesisanearlyexampleoftheinscribedtype,[31]andthe
in Ulmer Museum, Ulm, Germany, the oldest
Assyrian Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III a large and
known anthropomorphic animal-human statuette,
solidlateone.[32]
Aurignacianera,c. 35-40,000BP
The conquest of the whole of Mesopotamia and much
(cid:15) VenusofWillendorf,c. 24,000−26,000BP
surrounding territory by the Assyrians created a larger
and wealthier state than the region had known before,
(cid:15) Magdalenian Horse, c. 17,000 BP Musée
and very grandiose art in palaces and public places, no
d'ArchéologieNationale,France
doubt partly intended to match the splendour of the art
(cid:15) CreepingHyena,c. 12-17,000BP,mammothivory, oftheneighbouringEgyptianempire. TheAssyriansde-
foundinLaMadeleine,France velopedastyleofextremelylargeschemesofveryfinely
detailed narrative low reliefs in stone for palaces, with
(cid:15) SwimmingReindeerc. 13,000BP,femaleandmale scenesofwarorhunting;theBritishMuseumhasanout-
swimmingreindeer-lateMagdalenianperiod,found standingcollection. Theyproducedverylittlesculpturein
atMontastruc,TarnetGaronne,France theround,exceptforcolossalguardianfigures,oftenthe
human-headedlamassu,whicharesculptedinhighrelief
(cid:15) The Trundholm sun chariot, perhaps 1800–1500 ontwosidesofarectangularblock,withtheheadseffec-
BCE;thissideisgilded,theotheris“dark”. tivelyintheround(andalsofivelegs,sothatbothviews
seemcomplete). Evenbeforedominatingtheregionthey
(cid:15) Venus of Laussel c. 27,000 BP, an Upper Palae-
had continued the cylinder seal tradition with designs
olithiccarving,Bordeauxmuseum,France
whichareoftenexceptionallyenergeticandrefined.[33]
(cid:15) AJōmonstatue,Japan
(cid:15) The Guennol Lioness, 3rd millennium BCE, 3.5
incheshigh
6.2 AncientNearEast
(cid:15) One of 18 Statues of Gudea, a ruler around 2090
BCE
Mainarticles: ArtofMesopotamiaandPersianart
(cid:15) The Burney Relief, Old Babylonian, around 1800
BCE
TheProtoliterateperiodinMesopotamia,dominatedby
Uruk,sawtheproductionofsophisticatedworkslikethe (cid:15) AssyrianrelieffromNimrud,fromc. 728BCE
Warka Vase and cylinder seals. The Guennol Lioness
is an outstanding small limestone figure from Elam of
about 3000–2800 BC, part human and part lioness.[25] 6.3 AncientEgypt
Alittlelaterthereareanumberoffiguresoflarge-eyed
priests and worshippers, mostly in alabaster and up to a Seealso: ArtofancientEgyptandAmarnaart
foothigh,whoattendedtemplecultimagesofthedeity,
butveryfewofthesehavesurvived.[26] Sculpturesfrom
The monumental sculpture of Ancient Egypt is world-
the Sumerian and Akkadian period generally had large,
famous, but refined and delicate small works exist in
staringeyes,andlongbeardsonthemen. Manymaster-
muchgreaternumbers. TheEgyptiansusedthedistinc-
pieceshavealsobeenfoundattheRoyalCemeteryatUr
tivetechniqueofsunkrelief,whichiswellsuitedtovery
(c. 2650 BC), including the two figures of a Ram in a
brightsunlight. Themainfiguresinreliefsadheretothe
Thicket, theCopperBull anda bull’sheadononeofthe
same figure convention as in painting, with parted legs
LyresofUr.[27]
(where not seated) and head shown from the side, but
Fromthemanysubsequentperiodsbeforetheascendency the torso from the front, and a standard set of propor-
of the Neo-Assyrian Empire in the 10th century BCE tionsmakingupthefigure,using18“fists”togofromthe
Mesopotamianartsurvivesinanumberofforms: cylin- groundtothehair-lineontheforehead.[34] Thisappears
derseals,relativelysmallfiguresintheround,andreliefs asearlyastheNarmerPalettefromDynastyI.However,
ofvarioussizes,includingcheapplaquesofmouldedpot- there as elsewhere the convention is not used for minor
tery for the home, some religious and some apparently figuresshownengagedinsomeactivity,suchasthecap-
not.[28] The Burney Relief is an unusual elaborate and tivesandcorpses.[35] Otherconventionsmakestatuesof
relatively large (20 x 15 inches) terracotta plaque of a males darker than females ones. Very conventionalized
naked winged goddess with the feet of a bird of prey, portraitstatuesappearfromasearlyasDynastyII,before
andattendantowlsandlions. Itcomesfromthe18thor 2,780 BCE,[36] and with the exception of the art of the
19thcenturiesBCE,andmayalsobemoulded.[29] Stone AmarnaperiodofAhkenaten,[37]andsomeotherperiods
6.4 Europe 9
already shows the canonical Egyptian profile view
andproportionsofthefigure.
(cid:15) Menkaura (Mycerinus) and queen, Old Kingdom,
Dynasty 4, 2490–2472 BC. The formality of the
pose is reduced by the queen’s arm round her hus-
band.
(cid:15) Woodentombmodels,DynastyXI;ahighadminis-
tratorcountshiscattle.
(cid:15) Tutankhamun’s mask, c. late Eighteenth dynasty,
EgyptianMuseum
(cid:15) TheYoungerMemnonc. 1250BC,BritishMuseum
(cid:15) Osirisonalapislazulipillarinthemiddle,flankedby
Horusontheleft,andIsisontheright,22nddynasty,
Louvre
(cid:15) Thekastatueprovidedaphysicalplaceforthekato
manifest. EgyptianMuseum,Cairo
(cid:15) BlockstatueofPa-Ankh-Ra,shipmaster,bearinga
statueofPtah. LatePeriod,ca. 650–633BC,Cab-
inetdesMédailles.
6.4 Europe
Thutmose, Bust of Nefertiti, 1345 BC, Egyptian Museum of
Berlin
6.4.1 AncientGreece
suchasDynastyXII,theidealizedfeaturesofrulers,like
other Egyptian artistic conventions, changed little until
aftertheGreekconquest.[38]
Egyptian pharaohs were always regarded as deities, but
otherdeitiesaremuchlesscommoninlargestatues,ex-
cept when they represent the pharaoh as another deity;
howevertheotherdeitiesarefrequently showninpaint-
ings and reliefs. The famous row of four colossal stat-
ues outside the main temple at Abu Simbel each show
RamesesII,atypicalscheme,thoughhereexceptionally
large.[39] Smallfiguresofdeities,ortheiranimalperson-
ifications,areverycommon,andfoundinpopularmate-
rialssuchaspottery. Mostlargersculpturesurvivesfrom
Egyptiantemplesortombs; byDynastyIV(2680–2565
BCE)atthelatesttheideaoftheKastatuewasfirmlyes-
CharioteerofDelphi, ancientGreekbronzestatue, 5thcentury
tablished. Thesewereputintombsasarestingplacefor
BCE,closeupheaddetail
thekaportionofthesoul,andsowehaveagoodnumber
of less conventionalized statues of well-off administra-
torsandtheirwives,manyinwoodasEgyptisoneofthe Mainarticle: AncientGreeksculpture
few places in the world where the climate allows wood
to survive over millennia. The so-called reserve heads, ThefirstdistinctivestyleofAncientGreeksculpturede-
plain hairless heads, are especially naturalistic. Early veloped in the Early Bronze Age Cycladic period (3rd
tombsalsocontainedsmallmodelsoftheslaves,animals, millennium BCE), where marble figures, usually female
buildingsandobjectssuchasboatsnecessaryforthede- andsmall,arerepresentedinanelegantlysimplifiedgeo-
ceasedtocontinuehislifestyleintheafterworld,andlater metricalstyle. Mosttypicalisastandingposewitharms
Ushabtifigures.[40] crossedinfront, butotherfiguresareshownindifferent
poses,includingacomplicatedfigureofaharpistseated
(cid:15) FacsimileoftheNarmerPalette,c. 3100BC,which onachair.[41]
10 6 HISTORYOFSCULPTURE
The subsequent Minoan and Mycenaean cultures devel-
oped sculpture further, under influence from Syria and
elsewhere, but it is in the later Archaic period from
around 650 BCE that the kouros developed. These are
largestandingstatuesofnakedyouths,foundintemples
and tombs, with the kore as the clothed female equiva-
lent,withelaboratelydressedhair;bothhavethe"archaic
smile". Theyseemtohaveservedanumberoffunctions,
perhaps sometimes representing deities and sometimes
thepersonburiedinagrave,aswiththeKroisosKouros.
TheyareclearlyinfluencedbyEgyptianandSyrianstyles,
but the Greek artists were much more ready to experi-
mentwithinthestyle.
During the 6th century Greek sculpture developed
rapidly,becomingmorenaturalistic,andwithmuchmore
activeandvariedfigureposesinnarrativescenes,though
stillwithinidealizedconventions. Sculpturedpediments
were added to temples, including the Parthenon in
HighClassicalhighrelieffromtheElginMarbles,whichorigi-
Athens,wheretheremainsofthepedimentofaround520 nallydecoratedtheParthenon,c.447–433BCE
using figures in the round were fortunately used as infill
fornewbuildingsafterthePersiansackin480BCE,and
recovered from the 1880s on in fresh unweathered con-
andtheharmoniousstructureofsculptedfigures,andthe
dition. Other significant remains of architectural sculp-
pursuitofnaturalisticrepresentationasanaim,whichhad
turecomefromPaestuminItaly,Corfu,Delphiandthe
not been present before. Excavations at the Temple of
TempleofAphaeainAegina(muchnowinMunich).[42]
Zeus,Olympiasince1829haverevealedthelargestgroup
of remains, from about 460, of which many are in the
(cid:15) Cycladicstatue2700–2300BC.Headfromthefig- Louvre.[43]
ureofawoman,H.27centimetres(11in)
The “High Classical” period lasted only a few decades
(cid:15) CycladicFemaleFigurine,c. 2500–2400BCE,41.5 from about 450 to 400, but has had a momentous in-
fluence on art, and retains a special prestige, despite a
cm(16.3in)high
very restricted number of original survivals. The best
(cid:15) Mycenae, 1600−1500 BC. Silver rhyton with gold known works are the Parthenon Marbles, traditionally
hornsandrosetteontheforehead (since Plutarch) executed by a team led by the most fa-
mousAncientGreeksculptorPhidias,activefromabout
(cid:15) Lifesize kouros, c. 590–580 BCE, Metropolitan 465–425, who was in his own day more famous for his
MuseumofArt colossal chryselephantine Statue of Zeus at Olympia (c.
432),oneoftheSevenWondersoftheAncientWorld,his
(cid:15) The "Naxian Sphinx" from Delphi, 570–560 BC,
AthenaParthenos(438),thecultimageoftheParthenon,
thefigure222cm(87in)high
andAthenaPromachos,acolossalbronzefigurethatstood
(cid:15) PeplosKore,c. 530BC,Athens,AcropolisMuseum nexttotheParthenon;allofthesearelostbutareknown
from many representations. He is also credited as the
(cid:15) LateArchaicwarriorfromtheeastpedimentofthe creatorofsomelife-sizebronzestatuesknownonlyfrom
TempleofAphaea,c. 500 latercopieswhoseidentificationiscontroversial,includ-
ingtheLudovisiHermes.[44]
(cid:15) TheAmathussarcophagus,fromAmathus,Cyprus,
TheHighClassicalstylecontinuedtodeveloprealismand
2ndquarterofthe5thcenturyBCArchaicperiod,
sophisticationinthehumanfigure,andimprovedthede-
MetropolitanMuseumofArt
piction of drapery (clothes), using it to add to the im-
pactofactiveposes. Facialexpressionswereusuallyvery
Classical There are fewer original remains from the restrained, even in combat scenes. The composition of
firstphaseoftheClassicalperiod,oftencalledtheSevere groups of figures in reliefs and on pediments combined
style; free-standing statues were now mostly made in complexityandharmonyinawaythathadapermanent
bronze,whichalwayshadvalueasscrap. TheSeverestyle influence on Western art. Relief could be very high in-
lastedfromaround500inreliefs, andsoonafter480in deed,asintheParthenonillustrationbelow,wheremost
statues,toabout450. Therelativelyrigidposesoffigures ofthelegofthewarrioriscompletelydetachedfromthe
relaxed, andasymmetricalturningpositionsandoblique background, as were the missing parts; relief this high
views became common, and deliberately sought. This made sculptures more subject to damage.[45] The Late
was combined with a better understanding of anatomy Classical style developed the free-standing female nude