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ScramjetPropulsion Aerospace Series ScramjetPropulsion:APracticalIntroduction TheoryandPracticeofAircraftPerformance DoraMusielak AjoyKumarKundu,MarkA.Price,DavidRiordan AircraftSystemClassifications:AHandbookof AdaptiveAeroservoelasticControl CharacteristicsandDesignGuidelines AshishTewari AllanSeabridgeandMohammadRadaei TheGlobalAirlineIndustry,2ndEdition UASIntegrationintoCivilAirspace:Policy,Regulations PeterBelobaba,AmedeoOdoni,CynthiaBarnhart,Christos andStrategy Kassapoglou DouglasM.Marshall IntroductiontoAircraftAeroelasticityandLoads,2nd IntroductiontoUAVSystems,FifthEdition Edition PaulG.Fahlstrom,ThomasJ.Gleason,MohammadH.Sadraey JanR.Wright,JonathanEdwardCooper IntroductiontoFlightTesting TheoreticalandComputationalAerodynamics JamesW.Gregory,TianshuLiu TapanK.Sengupta FoundationsofSpaceDynamics AircraftAerodynamicDesign:GeometryandOptimization AshishTewari AndrásSóbester,AlexanderIJForrester EssentialsofSupersonicCommercialAircraftConceptual StabilityandControlofAircraftSystems:Introductionto Design ClassicalFeedbackControl EgbertTorenbeek RoyLangton DesignofUnmannedAerialSystems AerospacePropulsion MohammadH.Sadraey T.W.Lee FuturePropulsionSystemsandEnergySourcesin CivilAvionicsSystems,2ndEdition SustainableAviation IanMoir,AllanSeabridge,MalcolmJukes SaeedFarokhi AircraftFlightDynamicsandControl FlightDynamicsandControlofAeroandSpaceVehicles WayneDurham RamaK.Yedavalli ModellingandManagingAirportPerformance DesignandDevelopmentofAircraftSystems,3rdEdition KonstantinosZografos,GiovanniAndreatta,AmedeoOdoni AllanSeabridge,IanMoir AdvancedAircraftDesign:ConceptualDesign,Analysis HelicopterFlightDynamics:IncludingaTreatmentof andOptimizationofSubsonicCivilAirplanes TiltrotorAircraft,3rdEdition EgbertTorenbeek GarethD.PadfieldCEng,PhD,FRAeS DesignandAnalysisofCompositeStructures:With SpaceFlightDynamics,2ndEdition ApplicationstoAerospaceStructures,2ndEdition CraigA.Kluever ChristosKassapoglou PerformanceoftheJetTransportAirplane:Analysis AircraftSystemsIntegrationofAir-LaunchedWeapons Methods,FlightOperations,andRegulations KeithA.Rigby TrevorM.Young UnderstandingAerodynamics:ArguingfromtheReal SmallUnmannedFixed-wingAircraftDesign:APractical Physics Approach DougMcLean AndrewJ.Keane,AndrásSóbester,JamesP.Scanlan AircraftDesign:ASystemsEngineeringApproach AdvancedUAVAerodynamics,FlightStabilityand MohammadH.Sadraey Control:NovelConcepts,TheoryandApplications PascualMarqués,AndreaDaRonch TheoryofLift:IntroductoryComputationalAerodynamics inMATLAB/Octave DifferentialGameTheorywithApplicationtoMissilesand G.D.McBain AutonomousSystemsGuidance FarhanA.Faruqi SenseandAvoidinUAS:ResearchandApplications PlamenAngelov IntroductiontoNonlinearAeroelasticity GrigoriosDimitriadis MorphingAerospaceVehiclesandStructures JohnValasek IntroductiontoAerospaceEngineeringwithaFlightTest Perspective SpacecraftSystemsEngineering,4thEdition StephenCorda PeterFortescue,GrahamSwinerd,JohnStark AircraftControlAllocation UnmannedAircraftSystems:UAVSDesign,Development WayneDurham,KennethA.Bordignon,RogerBeck andDeployment RegAustin RemotelyPilotedAircraftSystems:AHumanSystems IntegrationPerspective NancyJ.Cooke,LeahJ.Rowe,WinstonBennettJr.,DeForest Q.Joralmon Visitwww.wiley.comtoviewmoretitlesintheAerospaceSeries. Scramjet Propulsion A Practical Introduction Dora Musielak University of Texas at Arlington Thiseditionfirstpublished2023 ©2023JohnWiley&SonsLtd Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystem,ortransmitted, inanyformorbyanymeans,electronic,mechanical,photocopying,recordingorotherwise,exceptas permittedbylaw.Adviceonhowtoobtainpermissiontoreusematerialfromthistitleisavailableat http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions. TherightofDoraMusielaktobeidentifiedastheauthorofthisworkhasbeenassertedinaccordance withlaw. RegisteredOffice(s) JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.,111RiverStreet,Hoboken,NJ07030,USA JohnWiley&SonsLtd,TheAtrium,SouthernGate,Chichester,WestSussex,PO198SQ,UK EditorialOffice 9600GarsingtonRoad,Oxford,OX42DQ,UK Fordetailsofourglobaleditorialoffices,customerservices,andmoreinformationaboutWileyproductsvisit usatwww.wiley.com. 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LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData Names:Musielak,Dora,author. Title:Scramjetpropulsion:apracticalintroduction/DoraMusielak. Description:Hoboken,NJ:Wiley,2023. Identifiers:LCCN2022027389(print)|LCCN2022027390(ebook)|ISBN 9781119640608(hardback)|ISBN9781119640592(adobepdf)|ISBN 9781119640639(epub) Subjects:LCSH:Airplanes–Jetpropulsion.|Airplanes–Scramjetengines. Classification:LCCTL709.M872023 (print)|LCCTL709 (ebook)|DDC 629.134/353–dc23/eng/20220812 LCrecordavailableathttps://lccn.loc.gov/2022027389 LCebookrecordavailableathttps://lccn.loc.gov/2022027390 Coverimage:©NASA CoverdesignbyWiley Setin9.5/12.5ptSTIXTwoTextbyStraive,Pondicherry,India v Contents Preface xiii Acknowledgment xvii 1 IntroductiontoHypersonicAir-BreathingPropulsion 1 1.1 HypersonicFlowandHypersonicFlight 3 1.2 ChemicalPropulsionSystems 5 1.2.1 Turbojets 6 1.2.2 Ramjets 7 1.2.3 Scramjets 8 1.2.4 CombinedCyclePropulsion 11 1.3 ClassesofHypersonicVehicles 12 1.4 ScramjetEngine–VehicleIntegration 15 1.5 ChemicalPropulsionPerformanceComparison 17 1.6 HypersonicAir-BreathingPropulsionHistoricalOverview 19 1.6.1 DevelopmentEffortsintheUnitedStates 19 1.6.2 DevelopmentProgramsaroundtheWorld 20 1.6.2.1 TheGermanSängerTSTO 21 1.6.2.2 TheRussianKholodProject 21 1.6.2.3 France 22 1.6.2.4 Japan 23 1.7 ScramjetFlightDemonstrationPrograms 23 1.7.1 NASAHyper-XFlightProgram(X-43AResearchVehicle) 24 1.7.2 AirForceScramjetEngineDemonstrator-WaveRiderProgram(X-51A) 26 1.7.3 Australia–USHIFiREProgram 28 1.8 NewHypersonicAir-BreathingPropulsionPrograms 30 1.9 HypersonicAir-BreathingPropulsionCriticalTechnologies 33 1.10 CriticalDesignIssues 36 Questions 37 References 38 2 TheoreticalBackground 41 2.1 AtmosphericFlight 41 2.1.1 IdealAir-BreathingPropulsionModel:UninstalledThrustandSpecific Impulse 42 vi Contents 2.1.2 Earth’sAtmosphere 44 2.1.3 DynamicPressure 45 2.1.4 AirMassFlowAvailableforThrust 48 2.2 AirThermodynamicModels 50 2.2.1 EquilibriumAirChemistry:PerfectGasAssumption 50 2.3 FundamentalEquations 53 2.3.1 One-DimensionalAerothermodynamicEquations 53 2.3.2 StagnationState 54 2.4 ThermodynamicCycleofAir-BreathingPropulsion 56 2.4.1 EngineReferenceStationNumbers 57 2.4.2 FlowThermodynamicProperties 58 2.4.3 AdiabaticCompressionProcess0 3 58 2.4.4 IsobaricHeatAdditionProcess3 4 59 2.4.5 AdiabaticExpansionProcess4 10 60 2.4.6 CombustorEnergyBalanceandCombustorEfficiency 60 2.5 Air-BreathingPropulsionPerformanceMeasures 61 2.5.1 ThermalEfficiency 61 2.5.2 PropulsiveEfficiency 62 2.5.3 OverallEfficiency 63 2.5.4 OtherFormsofPropulsionPerformanceMeasures 63 2.5.5 SpecificImpulseEstimateinTermsofKineticEnergyEfficiency 64 2.6 ShockWavesinSupersonicFlow 65 2.7 One-DimensionalFlowwithHeatAddition 69 2.8 ClosingRemarks 73 Questions 74 References 74 3 AerothermodynamicsofVehicle-IntegratedScramjet 77 3.1 AerothermodynamicEnvironment 78 3.1.1 Air-BreathingHypersonicCruise 80 3.1.2 Air-BreathingAccesstoSpaceVehicles 81 3.1.3 ReynoldsNumberandAir-BreathingHypersonicCruise 83 3.2 HypersonicViscousFlowPhenomena 83 3.2.1 ShockLayer 84 3.2.2 ViscousInteractionLayer 85 3.2.3 EntropyorVorticityInteractionLayer 87 3.3 LaminartoTurbulentTransitioninHypersonicFlows 88 3.3.1 TransitionCorrelationsBasedonBoundary-LayerMomentumThickness 89 3.3.2 SurfaceRoughnessEffectonBoundary-LayerTransition 90 3.4 HypersonicFlowfieldforPropulsion-IntegratedVehicles 92 3.4.1 SourcesofViscousInteractionsandShock–ShockInteractions 93 3.4.2 Forebody/InletFlowfield 94 3.4.3 NASAHyper-X:ACaseStudyforForebodyBoundary-LayerTransition 95 3.4.4 CowlLeading-EdgeShockInteractionsandShock-on-LipHeating 102 3.5 ConvectiveHeatTransferorAerodynamicHeating 104 3.5.1 HeatFluxOveraFlatSurface 105 3.5.2 Stagnation-PointHeatFlux 106 Contents vii 3.5.3 EffectofDynamicPressureonAerodynamicHeating 111 3.6 NASAX-43ALeading-EdgeFlightHardware 111 3.7 InletBluntLeading-EdgeEffectsandEntropyLayerSwallowing 113 3.8 InletShock-On-LipConditionorInletSpeeding 114 3.9 Shock–BoundaryLayerInteractionsinthePropulsionFlowpath 116 3.9.1 ScramjetOperationatHighHypersonicSpeed 116 3.9.2 ScramjetOperationatLowHypersonicSpeed 116 3.9.3 InletIsolatorShockTrain 117 3.10 InletUnstart 118 3.11 ClosingRemarks 119 Questions 120 References 120 4 ScramjetInlet/ForebodyandIsolator 123 4.1 Introduction 123 4.2 EngineInletFunctionandDesignRequirements 123 4.2.1 CapturedAirflowandCaptureArea 125 4.2.2 AirCompressionRequirement 126 4.2.3 Inlet/ForebodyDesignRequirements 126 4.3 InletTypes 129 4.3.1 InternalCompressionInlet 129 4.3.2 ExternalCompressionInlet 129 4.3.3 MixedExternal–InternalCompressionInlet 130 4.4 InletCompressionSystemPerformance 132 4.4.1 DiffusionProcessinRamjetInlet 132 4.4.2 PerformanceParametersforScramjetInlets 134 4.4.2.1 AllowableCompressionStaticPressureandTemperature 136 4.4.2.2 CompressionEfficiencies 136 4.4.2.3 KineticEnergyEfficiency 138 4.4.2.4 TotalPressureRecovery 140 4.4.2.5 DimensionlessEntropyGradient 141 4.5 HypersonicInletDesigns 143 4.5.1 Axisymmetric 144 4.5.2 Two-DimensionalFixedGeometryInlet 146 4.5.3 Three-DimensionalSidewallCompressionInlet 146 4.5.4 Three-DimensionalRectangular-to-EllipticalShapeTransitionInlet 147 4.5.5 VariableGeometryorDual-flowpathInlets 149 4.6 InletOperation:StartandUnstart 152 4.6.1 ContractionRatioLimitforInletStarting 152 4.7 InletAerodynamics 154 4.7.1 InletBoundaryLayer 155 4.7.2 BoundaryLayerGrowthinLowerForebodySurface 155 4.8 Isolator 157 4.8.1 IsolatorShockTrain 158 4.8.2 IsolatorLength 159 Questions 161 References 161 viii Contents 5 ScramjetCombustor 165 5.1 CombustorProcessDesiredProperties 166 5.2 CombustorEntranceConditions 167 5.2.1 CombustorEntrancePressure 167 5.2.2 CombustorEntranceTemperature 169 5.2.3 RequiredCombustorEntryMachNumber 171 5.3 CombustionStoichiometry 172 5.3.1 StoichiometricFuel-to-AirRatio 173 5.4 CombustionFlowfield 174 5.4.1 FuelInjectionandInjectorDevices 175 5.4.2 CombustionPerformanceParameters 180 5.4.3 Fuel/AirMixingEfficiency 182 5.4.4 CombustionandIgnitionTime 183 5.4.5 IgnitorsandIgnitionPromoters 184 5.4.6 Flameholding 184 5.4.7 CombustionChemicalKineticsMechanisms 186 5.4.8 SupersonicTurbulentCombustionCharacterization 189 5.5 ScramjetCombustorGeometry 192 5.5.1 NASAX-43AVehiclewithRectangularScramjetGeometry 193 5.5.2 NASAHypersonicResearchEnginewithConicalAxisymmetricGeometry 193 5.5.3 3-DEllipticalandRoundScramjetGeometries 194 5.6 ScramjetCombustorDesignIssues 197 5.7 ClosingRemarks 198 Questions 199 References 199 6 FuelsforHypersonicAir-BreathingPropulsion 203 6.1 Introduction 204 6.1.1 FuelEnergyforCombustion 205 6.2 EndothermicFuels 208 6.3 HeatSinkCapacityofHydrogenandEndothermicFuels 210 6.4 FuelHeatSinkRequirements 212 6.5 IgnitionCharacteristicsofFuels 214 6.6 MixingCharacteristicsofCrackedHydrocarbonFuels 217 6.7 StructuralandHeatTransferConsiderations 218 6.8 FuelSystemIntegrationandControl 219 6.9 CombustionTechnicalChallengeswithHydrocarbonFuels 219 6.10 ImpactofFuelSelectiononHypersonicVehicleDesign 221 6.11 FuelsResearchforHypersonicAir-BreathingPropulsion 223 Questions 224 References 225 7 Dual-ModeCombustionScramjet 227 7.1 Introduction 227 7.2 PhenomenologicalDescriptionofDual-ModeScramjet 229 7.3 HeatAdditiontoFlowinConstantAreaDuct 230