scott atran” pre-theoretical aspects of aristotelian definition and classification of animals: the case

51 Pages·2001·3.78 MB·English

SCOTT ATRAN”
PRE-THEORETICAL STCEPSA OF
NAILETOTSIRA DEFINITION AND
NOITACIFISSALC OF :SLAMINA EHT CASE
FOR COMMON SENSE
eW tsum :surt noitpecrep )sisehrsia( rehtar naht seiroeht )rogo/( dna ,seiroeht ,oot os gnol sa tahw
yehr wohs eerga htiw eht phainomena.
,eltotsirA eD enoifareneG muilaminA .111 13b067.01 - 33
noitcudortnI
SNAIROTSIH dna srehposolihp of ygoloib are, for the tsom part, ni accord htiw
the weiv that ’msilaitnesse‘ has neeb the lapicnirp ecruos of nis ni ,scitametsys
dna the esuac of seirutnec of .noitangats nI tsartnoc ot the cifitneics‘ ’noitulover
hcihw nageb ni the larutan yhposolihp of the htneetxis ,yrutnec larutan yrotsih
yldesoppus deunitnoc ot wollaw ni what Popper has debircsed as ‘the ytpme
egaibrev dna nerrab ’msicitsalohcs of ‘the nailetotsirA dohtem of ’.’noitinifed
gniwolloF Popper, for mohw msilaitnesse stcelfer a noisufnoc of word sgninaem
htiw na noitanalpxe of how rieht atatoned yllautca emac ot ’,eb lluH seugra :taht
ehT tcilfnoc neewteb ytilaer dna yroeht was ylegral derongi yb ylrae stsimonoxat htob
esuaceb yeht did ton dnatsrednu the cigol of nailetotsirA noitinifed yrev ylraelc esua cedbna neve stsitneics evah a yaw of ton gniciton what stcilfnoc htiw rieht
lacihposolihp ’.snoitisoppuserp
It si ton so hcum that retal stsimonoxat did ton dnatsrednu what eltotsirA
had ot yas tuoba ,noitinifed yeht tsuj were ton aware of the fact that eltotsirA
flesmih had dednuofnoc the of the snoitidnoc-hturt for the proper
noitacilppa of a mret htiw a delpicnirp tnuocca of the ecnetsixe of sti .stnerefer
tI si siht lautcelletni aipoym hcihw si nekat as elbisnopser‘ for stsimonoxat
.K‘ ,reppoP The Open Society and Ifs Enemies :notecnirP( notecnirP ytisrevinU ,sserP .)0591
.p
.K‘ ,reppoP serutcejnoC dna snoirarufeR weN( :kroY repraH dna ,woR ,)3691 .p .02
.D‘ ,lluH ehT‘ tceffE fo msilaitnessE no ymonoxaT - owT dnasuohT sraeY fo ,’sisatS The
British Journal for the Philosophy of Science 51 .)5691( .613
elocE‘ sed setuaH sedutE ne secneicS selaicoS dna muesuM eriotsiH’d ellerutaN ed .siraP sserddA
rof :ecnednopserroc 86 eur &llaH 41057 ,siraP .ecnarF
devieceR 4 hcraM .3891
Stud. His. Phil. Sri., .loV ,61 .oN ,2 .pp 311 - ,361 5891 5811863-9300 00.35 + 00.0
nomagreP sserP ,.dtL detnirP ni taerG .niatirB nomagreP sserP .dtL
311
l-11 Studies m History and yhposolihP fo Science
gniniater tahw si ylesool dellac a citats seiceps ,tpecnoc hcihw ni nrut si
elbisnopser rof seiceps gnieb detsevid fo .’ytilaer sihT si yldesoppus os neve
hguoht eht‘ seman fo taxa tonnac eb denifed ni smret fo laitnesse sretcarahc
tuohtiw noitacifislaf no a elacs hcihw dluohs evah neeb tnedive neve ot the tsom
lacitircnu rotagitsevni htiw ylno a detimil egdelwonk of the smsinagro gnieb
’.’deifissalc ,deednI ,nospmiS ni sih feirb yrotsih of ,scitametsys goes so far
as ot nraw the reader of s’eltotsirA suoicinrep effect no the :dnim
I dnet ot eerga htiw regoR nocaB taht eht yduts fo eltotsirA sesaercni .ecnarongi
,sselehtreveN eht srednuof fo ymonoxat erew sevlesmeht stneduts fo eltotsirA dna
saniuq4. gnoma( ynam srehto fo taht )egaenil os taht eht tcejbus si ot emos tnetxe
yrassecen rof ym S.esoprup
oslA gnitic Popper, ryaM sdnetnoc that ,eltotsirA ekil otalP dna lla‘
,’stsilaitnesse deyarteb htob nommoc esnes dna the eurt esruoc of ,ecneics yb
gnirongi the suoivbo snoitairav ni erutan for the sake of gnirevocsid ‘the neddih
erutan or mroF or secnesse of :’sgniht
llA eseht lacigolodohtem stsilaitnesse osla deerga htiw otalP ni gnidloh taht esoht
secnesse yam eb derevocsid dna denrecsid htiw eht pleh fo lautcelletni noitiutni .e.i[
,sisylana ;]cigol taht yreve ecnesse sah a eman reporp ot ,ti eht eman retfa hcihw
eht elbisnes gniht si 6.dellac
,msilaitnessE ,neht si a yhposolihp of dekram .ytiunitnocsid tI si suht tnatsiser
ot egnahc htob as a snaem of :noitatneserper
detneserP htiw eht retlew fo esrevid smrof ot eb ,deifissalc a tsimonoxat nac yltaerg
yfilpmis sih ksat fi eh sdneterp taht niatrec seitreporp era ”laitnesse“ rof ’,noitinifed
dna ni regard ot what si :detneserper
sihT ,yhposolihp nehw deilppa ot eht noitacifissalc fo cinagro ,ytisrevid stpmetta ot
ngissa eht ytilibairav fo erutan ot a dexif rebmun fo cisab sepyt at suoirav .slevel
tI setalutsop taht ail srebmem fo a noxat tcelfer eht emas laitnesse ,erutan ro ni rehto
sdrow taht yeht mrofnoc ot eht emas .epyt sihT si yhw eht tsilaitnesse ygoloedi si
osla derrefer ot sa .ygolopyt ,noitairaV ,yltneuqesnoc si deredisnoc yb eht tsigoiopyt
.dibI‘
‘G. ,nospmiS Principles of Animal Tuxonomy weN( :kroY aibmuloC ytisrevinU .sserP ,)1691
.p .n63 ,yllautcA nocaB thguoht eltotsirA a ,taerg fi ,dewalf .rehposolihp ehT s’etirigatS snoitseggus
tuoba scitpo del nocaB sa( llew sa )etsetessorG ot tpmetta a lacitamehtam sisylana fo ;erutan ,revewoh
s’nocaB larutan ,yrotsih ekilnu ,s’eltotsirA dettimda lacigam .secrof
.E‘ ,ryalk Principles of Systematic Zoology weN( :kroY warGcM - ,lliH .)9691 .pp 66 - ;76 ,reppoP
The Open Sociery and sti Enemies, .p 34; .fc .A ,niaC cigoL‘ dna yromeM ni s’sueanniL metsyS
fo ,’ymonoxaT Proceedings of rhe Linnaean Sociery fo London 169 (1958), 146.
,lluH‘ ehT‘ tceffE fo msilaitnessE no ,’ymonoxaT .p .613
Aristotelian Definition and noitarifissalC fo Animals 115
as laivirt dna .tnavelexi ehT ycnatsnoc of avat dna the ssenprahs of the gaps gnitarapes
meht dnet ot eb ?detareggaxe
roF ym part, I evah so far deliaf ot dnif yna larutan nairotsih of ecnacifingis
who reve adhered ot the tcirts noisrev of msilaitnesse so netfo detubirtta ot
.eltotsirA Nor si yna weaker noisrev of the enirtcod hcihw has yletanimircsidni
neeb detupmi ot ,yaR ,trofenruoT sueanniL dna reivuC ylekil ot raeb pu rednu
resolc .sisylana tsoM ,netfo ti si dekovni tsniaga s’eno nwo lavir :loohcs the
kcab pages of the lacinhcet slanruoj are dellif htiw stsicitenehp dna
stsicitenegolyhp gnisucca eno rehtona of gnieb yranoitcaer skcabworht ot na
nrowtuo noitidart - rieht laciteroeht egaggab dellif htiw segitsev of yllacitats
devirtnoc sepyt dna yllaicifitra dexif orders.
gnidnatshtiwtoN siht suoitnednet esu of ,yrotsih yraropmetnoc stnemugra
are yltneuqerf dediced no tcirts cifitneics ,sdnuorg ton yb lanirtcod .ecnaigella
ehT case si esiwrehto for lacirotsih serugif who yam eb ,derebmemer or
,nettogrof ylno as ’srosrucerp‘ htiw regard ot smelborp hcihw yltnerruc etatiga
;scitametsys for, the lacirotsih past netfo appears ylerem as na tcefrepmi edulerp
ot the nredom .tneserp ehT smelborp were there lla the ,emit ylno yeht were
deweiv deyekcoc hguorht sretlif of lanoitidart ,ecnarongi ecidujerp dna
.noititsrepus
nettogroF ni siht hsiggihW weiv of yrotsih are the :stcaf the noitarobale of
the noitcnitsid neewteb the lacigoloib seiceps dna ,suneg the tnevda of the ylimaf
tpecnoc ,dna ,yletamitlu the ycnadnecsa of the noiton of .mulyhp llA of these
,stnempoleved ,hguoht are deddebme ni the laudarg dna dnuoforp tfihs morf
nommoc esnes gnidnatsrednu of ,lacol yadyreve ,ecneirepxe ot reve erom
evitcelfer stpmetta ot cope htiw ediw-dlrow :ytlevon morf the s’namyal
suoenatnops tnemtaert of what si rare dna egnarts ni the dlrow ni smret of the
ylidaer elbisiv dna railimaf snrettap of the lanemonehp order of ,sgniht ot the
s’tsilarutan evissergorp effort ot laed htiw gnisaecnu yrevocsid ni smret of the
neddih sesuac dna lanemonehpnon processes of .ygoloib
oT ecuder siht lla ot ‘two dnasuoht sraey of ’sisats si ot ezilaivirt a latnemunom
tnemevom ni namuh thguoht - a tnemevom ,hcihw yb the htneethgie ,yrutnec
was at tsael elba ot offer pu the elohw of the gnivil ,dlrow gnidulcni ,nam as
na tcejbo of yduts dna .thgisni roF lla stnetni dna ,sesoprup ti was eltotsirA
who nageb siht ;tnemevom hguoht ti was for others ot yrrac ti hguorht ni syaw
hcihw he dluoc ton evah .denigami hcuS a tnemevom was elbissop at ,lla
,revewoh ylno esuaceb access was derussa yb a nommoc esnes noitaicerppa of
the gnivil dlrow shared ton ylno yb eltotsirA dna ,sueanniL tub yb yranidro
klof .erehwyreve
,ryaM‘ selpicnirP of Systematic Zoology, p. 67.
611 Studies in Hisror,v and Phi1osoph.v of Science
I
nommoC ,esnes as here ,dootsrednu yllacisab refers ot lasrevinu aspects of
lanoitisoporp .e.i( )elbaulav-hturt gnidnatsrednu of the .tnemnorivne sihT
sedulcni stnemetats gniniatrep ot what si ylekil ot eb na yletanni ,dednuorg dna
,cificeps-seiceps noisneherppa of the ,laropmet-oitaps ,lacirtemoeg ,citamorhc
lacimehc dna cinagro dlrow ni hcihw we, dna lla other namuh ,sgnieb evil rieht
yadyreve .sevil .G E. Moore stup the rettam siht :yaw
tahW si tnaem yb gniyas taht os-dna-os si a erutaef ro meti ni eht“ nommoC esneS
weiv fo eht ?”dlrow gnihtemoS ekil :siht That ti si a gniht hcihw yreve ro yrev ylraen
yreve enas ,tluda ohw sah eht esu fo all sih sesnes .g.e( saw ton nrob dnilb ro ,)faed
seveileb ro swonk erehw( ’seveileb‘ dna ’swonk‘ era desu .)yllanoitisopsid seoD eno
deen ot :dda dnA fo ,hcihw rof ynam ,seirutnec ti dluow evah neeb eurt ot yas ’?siht
tuP ,ylpmis we are lla )yletanni( desopsid ot ,eveileb or wonk ot eb ,eurt that
the dlrow of yadyreve ecneirepxe si desopmoc of larutan lacimehc dna lacigoloib
sdnik whose sralpmexe tsefinam etinifed ,sroloc egnahc ni emit dna are yllacol
dehsiugnitsid yb rieht snoitaler ni )naedilcuE( space. ehT lautca noitazilaer of
these evitingoc ,snoitisopsid gnidulcni the ralucitrap stnetnoc of hcus ,sfeileb
,sdneped of ,esruoc no the ,lacol yratnemgarf ecneirepxe elbaliava ot .su tuB
hcus ecneirepxe does ton so hcum shape ruo sfeileb as ,’reggirt‘ or ,noisacco
the ’citamotua‘ noisnetxe of yratnemgarf secnatsni ot na detargetni set of
ylxelpmoc detaler :secnatsni ot eb elba ot edivid the dlrow otni cats dna dogs,
eno tsum ecneirepxe cats dna ;sgod tub ti si ruo roirp evitingoc noitisopsid ot
ezirogetac slamina htiw slamina dna seiceps srebmem htiw seiceps srebmem that
swolla su ot hsiugnitsid hcus secneirepxe as cats dna dogs, rather naht as mastolf
dna .mastej
sA ,hcus nommoc esnes si ton ot eb dednuofnoc htiw the ‘good nommoc
,’esnes or susnes communis, of the namoR ;srotaro that ,si the latnem yticapac
for gniyfilpmexe proper ,tnemgduj as nehw we yas of a esiw nam that he shows
good nommoc esnes ni sih ,seciohc or of a ydnah nam that he swonk sih ass
morf sih .woble tahT dnik of luflliw (or )citamgarp dna yllarutluc evitaler
tnemgduj si ton ni noitseuq here. tahW si of nrecnoc si yllauqe elbissecca ot
the sage dna the ,sumarongi the luflliks dna the ,deniarb-erah on rettam what
sih or her ;erutluc ti si part of ruo yranoitulove .egatireh No noitaluceps nac
ylbissop etufnoc the sdnuorg for siht nommoc esnes weiv of ,sgniht ecnis lla
noitaluceps tsum start morf .ti erehT tsuj si on other ecalp ot nigeb ot kniht
tuoba the .dlrow
‘G. Moorr, The Commonplace Book fo C. E. Moore :nodnoL( nel14. dna ,niwnU ,3691 .p .082
Aristotelian Definition and noitacifissalC fo Animals 117
evitalucepS nosaer naisetraC( nob )snes si suht elbanu ot tuc the lacilibmu
cord hcihw sdnib ti ot nommoc ,esnes dna so enimrednu .ti ,llitS eno nac go
dnoyeb ruo yranidro syaw of gnikniht tuoba .sgniht noitalucepS nac laever the
sdnuob of nommoc esnes dna ybereht tneverp nommoc esnes morf gnideecxe
sti proper ;ytirohtua for, nommoc esnes sniamer dilav ylno so gnol as ti si
detcirtser ot the yltsefinam elbisiv snoisnemid of the yadyreve ,dlrow that ,si
ot lanemonehp .ytilaer deidutS noitcelfer dna derusaem ,noitatnemirepxe
,revewoh nac dael ot egdelwonk of ,rehtona ,lanemonehpnon dlrow - a dlrow
of ,lacimonortsa cipocsorcim dna yranoitulove snoisnemid - hcihw nac ylno
eb yleugav ,deviecrep fi at ,lla htiw the tnedive-fles snoitiutni of nommoc .esnes
nommoC ,esnes ,neht si na elbatibudni ecruos of hturt for egdelwonk of the
ylidaer decneirepxe lacol ,dlrow tub elbillaf as a snaem of thgisni otni the
cifitneics .esrevinu ,sihT senipo ,ecrieP si what hcus htneethgie yrutnec nommoc
esnes srehposolihp as dieR dna Stewart did ton ylluf :etaicerppa
ehT hctocS deliaf ot ezingocer . . taht eht lanigiro sfeileb ylno niamer elbatibudni
ni rieht noitacilppa ot sriaffa taht elbmeser eht evitimirp edom fo .efil tI ,si rof ,elpmaxe
etiuq nepo ot elbanosaer tbuod rehtehw eht snoitom fo snortcele era denifnoc ot eerht
,snoisnemid hguohtla ti si doog cituedohtem ot emuserp yeht era litnu emos ecnedive
ot eht yrartnoc si .gnimochtrof . . ehT hctocS loohcs sraeppa ot evah on hcus
noitcnitsid gninrecnoc eht snoitatimil fo eht ytilibatibudni dna eht tneuqesnoc
snoitatimil fo eht noitcidsiruj fo lanigiro .feileb . nredoM ecneics . . . htiw sti
yleritne wen secnailppa fo ,efil sah tup su ni etiuq rehtona ;dlrow tsomla sa hcum
os sa fi ti dah detropsnart our ecar ot rehtona .tenalp emoS fo eht dlo sfeileb evah
on noitacilppa detpecxe ni dednetxe ,sesnes dna ni hcus dednetxe sesnes yeht era
semitemos elbatibud dna tcejbus ot 0‘.msicitirc
deredisnoC ni siht ,yaw nommoc esnes does ton ,edulcerp tub rehtien does
ti ,edulcni yna ,lacigam ,suoigiler-ocihtym lacirohpatem or other ’cilobmys‘
noitarobale of the laciripme .dlrow hcuS cilobmys noitarobale si yb erutan -non
;lanoitisoporp that ,si ti nac eb dengissa on dexif gninaem ton( neve a txetnoc
evitaler )eno hcihw nac eb desiarppa for sti yllacigol tnetsisnoc ;stnemliatne
rehtien nac ti eb debircsa a etanimreted lautcaf tnetnoc htiw elbaifirev
secneuqesnoc that ecneirepxe yam rehtie ylidaer mrifnoc or yletinifed .mrifnocsid
cilobmyS snoitarobale of nommoc esnes are ot eb accepted no .htiaf yllaretiL
yeht are ton ,lufgninaem tub .eugav riehT esoprup si ot eticni noitacove rather
naht ot enimreted the facts. tuB ni order ot eb ,evitceffe yeht eriuqer a lautcaf
,sisab ,yleman nommoc .esnes yehT are, as tnaK dluow ,yas dezitamehcs-isauq
cilobmys‘ ’snoitingoc for hcihw on‘ noitiutni etarusnemmoc htiw meht nac eb
”.’nevig tahW sneppah here ,si ,ylhguor that eno seeks emos yllaciripme
‘Tollecred srepaP jo Charles Sanders .ecrieP .loV 5, .C enrohstraH dna .P ssieW ).sde(
,egdirbmaC( :sttesuhcassalkl dravraH ytisrevinU ,sserP ,)4391 pp. 834 - ;75 505 - .52
,tnaK“ Critique of Judgment, noitces .95
811 Studies IW History and yhposolihP fo Science
elbatiutni noitautis hcihw nac evres as a ledom yb ecnerefer ot hcihw the aedi
nac eb edam elbisneherpmoc (e.g. doG gnittup erutaN ni order no the ledom
of a father gninilpicsid sih ;)ylimaf tub the fact that the ledom si denimretedrednu
htiw respect ot sti erutcurts sevael ynam of sti serutaef ni the :krad ‘No
msihpromosi neewteb the ledom dna the delledom nac eb yltnegoc desoppus
dna ecneh the noitseuq of hturt does ton ,esira ton neve ”.’ylsuoiraciv
sihT does ton naem that there nac eb on preferred enil of ,noitaterpretni or
that there thgim ton eb greater lautcaf tnetnoc ni eno noitaterpretni naht ni
.rehtona tI ylno snaem that there si on tnetsisnoc ecneuqes of lanoitisoporp
stnemliatne of the mrof fi‘ p, neht q’ ylpmis esuaceb on cilobmys ,ecnarettu
s, si reve yletelpmoc delian .nwod esuaceB hcus secnarettu are reven yletelpmoc
dexif as ot lanoitisoporp ,tnetnoc yeht nac eb deniatretne as lanrete‘ ’shturt hcihw
are sselehtenon elbatpada ot a gnignahc noitaicerppa of the dlrow of facts.”
hcuS cilobmys slaurtsnocer of the ,dlrow ,revewoh are yb on snaem
snoitanalpxe of the facts. tI si siht ,thgisni seugra .R.E.G ,dyolL hcihw
sehsiugnitsid the keerG physiologoi morf the magoi, dna the citarcoppiH doctors
morf the sreifirup (katharfai):
lacigolohtyM ’seigoloitea‘ are snoitanalpxe ylno ni a etiuq detcirtser .esnes To etubirtta
sekauqhtrae ot nodiesoP ,si morf eht tniop fo weiv fo na gnidnatsrednu fo eht erutan
fo ,sekauqhtrae ton ot ecuder eht nwonknu ot eht ,nwonk tub ot egnahcxe eno
nwonknu rof .rehtona elihW s’nodiesoP sevitom nac eb denigami ni namuh smret . .
woh na ekauqhtrae srucco si ton ybereht denialpxe ron deedni at .eussi fI ereht si
on noitseuq fo gningissa na lacirotsih nigiro ot na tseretni ni lasuac snoitanalpxe fo
emos ,dnik eht etarebiled noitagitsevni fo woh ralucitrap sdnik fo natural anemonehp
rucco ylno snigeb htiw the :srehposolihp ti was yeht who tsrif detpmetta ot nialpxe
what ,rednuht ,gninthgil sespilce dna eht ekil era ni smret fo erom railimaf anemonehp
dna 41.sessecorp
True, keerG cifitneics ,noitaluceps ekil cilobmys ,laurtsnocer saw )llanoisacco
deripsni yb lanoitavresbo seigolana hcihw yllaitini dluoc ton eb deifislaf yb
;ecneirepxe tub the gninaem of hcus noitaluceps was dexif hguone for the
tnemugra ot eb yllacigol tneuqesnoc dna suht tcejbus ot cificeps egnellahc yb
a lavir .noitaluceps
gnidroccA ot Popper, for ,elpmaxe s’selahT noitanalpxe of sekauqhtrae ni
smret of the tnemevom of the earth nopu the water ti yldesoppus sedir si ‘at
tsael deripsni yb lanoitavresbo ”.’ygolana ,sselehtreveN hcus seigolana are ton
A“ ,tilagraM, nepO‘ ,’erutxeT ni Meaning ond ,esU .A tilagralh (ed.) :melasureJ( sengalLI ,sserP
,)9791 .p .541
.D“ rebrepS setangised hcus cilobmys snoitingoc lanoitisoporpimes‘ ’snoitatneserper ni eL riovaS
des Anrhropologues :siraP( .nnamreH .)2891 .p .96
.G“ E. .R .dyolL Magic. Reason and Experience: Sfudies in rhe Origins and Developmen, of
keerC Science ,egdirbmaC( :.K.U egdirbmaC ytisrevinU ,sserP .)9791 .pp 25 - 53.
.K“ ,reppoP kcaB‘ ot eht .’scitarcoS-erP Proceedings of rhe Arisrorelian Socier.v 59 (1958 - 1959).
Aristotelian noitinijeD and noitacifissalC fo Animals 119
a lacigol tnemeriuqer of ylrae cifitneics snoitaluceps hcihw netfo evah‘ gnihton
ot do htiw .’noitavresbo ,suhT sreva Popper, s’rednamixanA yroeht of the
earth’s free noisnepsus ni space sniatnoc on‘ ygolana reveostahw ni the elohw
dleif of elbavresbo facts’. ,ylgnidroccA Popper sedulcnoc that lanoitavresbo
ecneirepxe dna nommoc esnes tonnac eb deredisnoc yllacigol yrassecen sources
of (the growth of) cifitneics .egdelwonk
sihT hcum smees thgir ni Popper’s .sisylana tuB he goes no ot eugra that
nommoc esnes nac yllautca eb a ecnardnih ot the progress of .ecneics ekaT the
case of :rednamixanA sih noitaluceps no the free noisnepsus of the earth was
ylbamuserp a ylreporp cifitneics yroeht ni that ti was htob a tcerid msicitirc
of a suoiverp yroeht )s’selahT( dna a tcerid tnednecetna of nredom cifitneics
;sgnidnif ,revewoh he was delsim yb esnes-nommoc‘ ’yroeht otni gnisoppus that
the earth was talf ekil a .murd-nmuloc
,yldettimdA snoitressa hcus as ‘the earth si ’talf or ‘the earth sedir no water
ekil a ’pihs are elbitapmoc htiw nommoc ,esnes ni that sheer noitiutni tuoba
what si yltnedive-fles eurt ,tonnac yb ,flesti yfislaf hcus .smialc Yet, hcus
snoitressa are ton smialc of nomm oc ,esnes ron are yeht yllacigol desab‘ ’no
nommoc ;esnes for, fi nommoc esnes nac edivorp on snoitiutni ot yfislaf hcus
,smialc rehtien nac ti edivorp the snoitiutni ot yfirev .meht hcuS snoitiutni eil
dnoyeb the ,larutan yletanni ,denimreted lanemonehp sdnuob of nommoc .esnes
,revoeroM rehtien the noisnepsus-eerf yroeht ron the yroeht that the earth si
a sphere are incompatible htiw nommoc ;esnes ,deedni ni de Caelo eltotsirA
stniop ot the ylidaer tnerappa character of the noziroh ni esnefed of the earth’s
,yticirehps elihw the aedi of noisnepsus-eerf ni rednamixanA si detroppus yb
the ylbisiv dexif ecnatsid of the stars.16
nevE erom tnacifingis si the fact that the noituloser of smelborp detcennoc
htiw the laropmet-oitaps noitisop of the ylnevaeh seidob sdneped nopu a correct
noitaicerppa of the scope dna stimil of nommoc .esnes ehT shape of the earth,
the noitisop of the ,nus etc. are denimreted yb ;noitaluclac ,revewoh hcus
snoitaluclac hcihw( were yltrap depoleved as sdia ot )noitagivan are desab no
the noitpmussa that suoirav other stcejbo are how dna where yeht
yllacisnesnommoc appear ot .eb tI si ylno esuaceb we start yb gnitauqe the
lacisyhp snoitisop of the sgniht dnuora su htiw the devresbo snoitisop of
dezidradnats stnerefer that ruo erom detacitsihpos sdohtem of gnitacol stcejbo
ekil the ,nus dna gnitcejorp the erutavruc of the earth, nac dael ot elbamrifnoc
.stluser dnA hcus dezidradnats ,stnerefer nekat together htiw rieht tnerappa
laropmet-oitaps ,noitisop are ylesicerp those sgniht dnuora su htiw hcihw we
sA61 ot s’reppoP noiton taht ereht‘ si eht tsom tcefrep elbissop ’ytiunitnoc neewteb selahT dna
rednamitnA dna nredom ,ecneics siht smees hsiggihW ta tseb - ta tsael litnu ti si nwohs taht
eht tnaveler seigolotno dna elbawolla secnerefni fo eseht srekniht era elbicuder ot esoht fo nredom
ecneics tuohtiw ssol fo .ytilareneg
120 Studies ni History and yhposolihP fo Science
are tsom ylevitiutni ”.railimaf
roF Popper, the ssensuoicinrep of too hsivals a noitoved ot nommoc esnes
si neve erom tnerappa ni the episteme of eltotsirA dna‘ lla other ’stsilaitnesse
nierehw the tnedive-fles snoitinifed of the smret of yranidro egaugnal nac eb
ylbamuserp nekat as eurt selpicnirp of the noitazinagro of Sl.ytilaer tI si siht
gnitanimircsidnu weiv of nommoc esnes dna msilaitnesse hcihw I hsiw ot
,egnellahc as ti seilppa ot s’eltotsirA .ygoloib
II
nailetotsirA noitaluceps tuoba erutan nageb htiw na yriuqni otni the lareneg
aspects of the yranidro s’keerG yadyreve egdelwonk of the yldrow sgniht dnuora
:mih of those tnedive-fles sorts tsefinam ni nommoc ,ecnalrap dna ylsuoenatnops
accepted yb tsom .enoyreve ,suhT for yna ralucitrap state of ,sriaffa eno thgim
:ksa tahW si ?ti ekil-tahW si ?ti tahW ezis si ?ti erehW si ?ti How does ti ?kool
How does ti ?eil nI what si ?ti etc.19 ehT set of smret hcihw dluow edivorp
elbisnes ton( ylirassecen )eurt srewsna ot these dna other ralimis latnemadnuf
snoitseuq are dias ot gnoleb ot the emas .’yrogetac‘
roF ,elpmaxe lamina dna :egdelwonk ,detoof ,degniw ,citauqa ,detoof-owt era
eaitnereffid fo ,lamina tub enon fo eseht si a aitnereffid fo ;egdelwonk eno tros fo
egdelwonk seod ton reffid morf rehtona yb gnieb 0*.detoof-owt
nI“ ylper ot ,reppoP .G .S kriK stressa :taht ssorg‘ serutraped morf nommoc esnes erew ylluferac
dediova yb eht .scitarcoserP yllarutaN ynam fo eht snoisulcnoc fo eht ylrae scitarcoserP erew
yrartnoc ot nommoc ;esnes tub yeht erew ton suotiutarg serutraped morf ti . . . ecnis yeht deraeppa
ot eb deliatne yb stnemugra hcihw sevlesmeht dedneped no noitavresbo dna nommoc :’esnes reppoP‘
no ecneicS dna eht ,’scitarcoserP ,dniM 96 .)0691( redisnoC :selahT gnidroccA ot ,kriK s’selahT
aedi fo a detroppus-retaw htrae saw ’deworrob‘ morf eht shtym fo eht enirevir .snoitazilivic esehT
,shtym ni ,nrut erew larutan‘ ’saedi hcihw erew ylmrif‘ desab nopu noitavresbo dna ’ecneirepxe
.p( .)723 tahT ,si yeht devired morf nommoc esnes snoiton hcihw erew sevlesmeht ’evitcudni‘ ni
eht esnes fo gnieb desab‘ no na etinifedni rebmun fo ,’sralucitrap hguohtla eht snoitcudni dluoc
eb ’evitiutni‘ dna ’suoicsnoc-bus‘ .p( .)123 morF siht ti swollof taht s’selahT yroeht dna( ecneics
ni )lareneg si yletamitlu .’evitcudni‘
,yletanutrofnU hcae enil ni siht niahc fo gninosaer si .dewalf ehT evitiutni snoitcudni fo nommoc
esnes dluoc ton eb desab no na etinifedni rebmun fo ralucitrap ,snoitavresbo eromyna naht ruo
evitiutni noitcudni fo selgnairt dluoc eb desab‘ ’nopu sralucitrap hcihw era ton yllaitini dedneherppa
sa .selgnairt ecneirepxE ylerem snoisacco eht noisulcnoc fo na evitiutni ,noitcudni ti seod ton -
dna yllacigol tonnac - ecudorp ro yfitsuj .ti roN si s’selahT aedi fo a detroppus-retaw htrae
’deworrob‘ morf eht enirevir shtym fo Greece dna ,tpygE eromyna naht eseht shtym sevlesmeht
era larutan‘ ’saedi hcihw era ylmrif‘ desab . no noitavresbo dna ’ecneirepxe .p( .)723 tahW sekam
s’selahT yroeht tnereffid morf htym si taht ti nac eb dezicitirc dna( yletamitlu )detufer esuaceb
fo sti etinifed lanoitisoporp .tnetnoc ,shtyM ,revewoh evah on etinifed lanoitisoporp .tnetnoc esuaceB
yeht evah on etinifed lanoitisoporp tnetnoc yeht nac ni on esnes eb ylmrif‘ ’desab rehtie no ,nosaer
deiduts noitavresbo ro nommoc .ecneirepxe
,reppoPa‘ Conjectures and Refutations, .p 20.
.fC“ .G ,elyR ,’seirogetaC‘ Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society 38 (1938 - .)9391 981 - .602
.taT‘ .6lbl :etoN( lla seltit ot s’eltotsirA skrow era detaiverbba ni ecnadrocca htiw eht
lleddiL - ttocS - senoJ .)nocixeL
Aristotelian Definition and noitacifissalC fo Animals 121
tahW nac eb ylbisnes dias of slamina tonnac eb ylbisnes dias of ,egdelwonk
dna eciv ,asrev esuaceb slamina dna egdelwonk gnoleb ot tnereffid .seirogetac
,suhT revetahw nac eb yllufhturt dias of eno dnik of lamina nac eb ylbisnes
detaciderp of lla other sdnik of ,slamina neve fi the noitaciderp si eslaf (e.g.
ti sekam esnes ot ask whether or ton ,hsif ,sdepurdauq stcesni are degniw neve
hguoht tsom are .)ton tuB ton gnihtyreve that nac eb ylbisnes detaciderp of
slamina nac eb ylbisnes detaciderp of stnalp (e.g. ti si laretil - hguoht perhaps
ton lacirohpatem - esnesnon ot ask whether slamina evah roots dna ,sevael
or whether stnalp peels dna evah .)seibab ,llitS there are setaciderp hcihw nac
eb ylbisnes deilppa ot stnalp as llew as ,slamina hcus as ’evil‘ dna .’eid‘ sihT
snaem that stnalp dna ,slamina hguohtla yeht evah tnereffid lacigolotno ,sutats
sselehtreven tsum gnoleb ot the emas lacigolotno yrogetac eno( hcihw nac eb
,debircsed ni part, yb the setaciderp hcihw nac ylbisnes eb deilppa ot htob stnalp
dna .)slamina ehT ,seirogetac ,neht tneserper those lacigolotno sniamod hcihw
ylbisnes share on ,setaciderp dna on rennam of ,ecnetsixe htiw eno ,rehtona
hcus as ,ecnatsbus ,ytilauq ,ytitnauq ,ecalp ,emit etc.
ehT tsom tnatropmi yrogetac ni the nailetotsirA emehcs si that of ecnatsbus
(ousia). ehT stnetnoc of siht yrogetac are ton decudorp yb a iroirp ,gninosaer
tub yb na tsinoitcartsba esu of nommoc esnes .snoitiutni Here, eno snigeb htiw
the elbisnes phainomena of yadyreve ,ecneirepxe yllaicepse elbisiv 12.anemonehp
ehT yramirp stcejbo of egdelwonk are those elbisnes sgniht hcihw can eb deman
ni yranidro speech. hguohtlA tnereffid segaugnal thgim evah tnereffid sdnuos
for gnitoned ,sgniht the sgniht ,detoned as llew as the latnem snoitatneserper
of those ,sgniht are ytterp hcum nommoc ot :dniknamuh
woN nekops sdnuos are slobmys fo snoitceffa ni eht ,luos dna nettirw skram slobmys
fo nekops .sdnuos But tahw eseht era ni eht tsrif ecalp sngis fo - snoitceffa fo eht
luos - era eht emas rof ;lla dna tahw eseht snoitceffa era sessenekil fo - actual
sgniht - era osla eht 22.emas
gniwO ot ruo etanni latnem ,pu-ekam these sgniht are detneserper ot su tsrif
as esnes ,snoisserpmi neht as seiromem .23 fI the ecneirepxe si ,deniatsus a gniht
si deman dna detneserper ni ruo sdnim as a lairetam-non ;mrof that ,si the esnes
nagro seviecer the mrof of the tcejbo deviecrep tuohtiw sti .rettam ehT esnes
,nagro hcihw syawla has the laitnetop for yllautca gnimussa the smrof of ,stcejbo
ybereht semoceb the .tcejbo ,suhT egdelwonk‘ that stsixe ni ytilautca si lacitnedi
llA‘“ nem erised yb erutan ot .wonk nA noitacidni fo siht si eht thgiled ew ekat ni ruo ;sesnes
rof neve trapa morf rieht ssenlufesu yeht era devol rof :sevlesmeht dna evoba lla srehto eht esnes
fo .thgis . ehT nosaer si taht ,siht tsom fo lla eht ,sesnes sekam su wonk dna sgnirb ot thgil ynam
secnereffid neewteb .’sgniht .hpafeM( 12a089 - .)72
.tnI“ .3a61
.oPA“ b99 - .a001
122 Studies ni History and yhposolihP fo Science
htiw sti ”.’tcejbo ,oS ot wonk the eurt erutan of na tcejbo si ot evah that tcejbo
detneserper ni the ;dnim for, the lairetam-non lautcelletni mrof of the tcejbo
yllautca si of the ecnesse of the .tcejbo nI the gnitimil case, that ,si at tsrif ,thgis
the mrof )ehprom( si ylpmis the roiretxe lacigolohprom aspect of the tcejbo
(e.vterna figura ac forma).25 sihT si the ,lausu citarcoS-erp esnes of the mret
eidos. 6l
nI effect, the stneutitsnoc of siht laitini level of sisylana dnopserroc ot what
stsigolohcysp llac cisab‘ ’tcejbo .smret hcuS smret yltnerappa tneserper the laitini
laitnerefer sgnipuorg of yrev gnuoy ,nerdlihc the deman sgnipuorg ot hcihw
stluda yliramirp ngissa stcejbo dna the tsrif sgnipuorg ot eb dengissa a lacixel
elbal ni a nevig citnames )lacirogetac( niamod ni the noitulove of a .egaugnal
ehT stcejbo hcihw llaf rednu the noisnetxe of these smret mees ot share gross
lautpecrep ro/dna lanoitcnuf .serutaef esehT smret ylbamuserp edivid the dlrow
of stcejbo otni yllamixam elbahsiugnitsid sets of ,seititne dna etutitsnoc the tsom
evisulcni sgnipuorg for hcihw a etercnoc egami of a ssalc of stcejbo nac eb
.demrof nI siht esnes dogs dna ,sriahc for ,elpmaxe are erom cisab ot the sniamod
of gnivil sdnik dna ,stcafitra ,ylevitcepser ,naht ,yas slammam )sdepurdauq( or
snoitamlad dna erutinruf or .sriahc-hgih tcejbo-cisaB smret suht tneserper the
tsom ylevitiutni elbissecca level of tcejbo 72.noitazirogetac
morF siht sisab eno seunitnoc the sisylana of ecnatsbus yb :’noitcudni‘
there si a evitimirp lasrevinu ni the dnim rof( hguoht eno seviecrep eht ,ralucitrap
noitpecrep si fo eht lasrevinu - .g.e fo nam tub ton fo sailiaC eht ;)nam niaga a
dnats si edam ni ,eseht litnu tahw sah on strap dna si lasrevinu sdnats - .g.e hcus
andsuch na lamina ,sdnats litnu lamina .seod . . Thus ti si raelc taht ti si yrassecen
“de An. III. 5.
15.Meraph. .6lb999
eeSK .A ,rolyaT ehT‘ sdroW SODIE dna AEDI ni cinotalP-erP ,’erutaretiL ni airaV Socratica
:drofxO( ,rekraP 191 I). eltotsirA sesu eht termsschema, idea dna morpheas lacinhcet-non smynonys
fo eidos; ni 4.P ,82-42b046 rof .elpmaxe eh sesu lla ruof smret ot etoned eht epahs fo a .deb
gnidroccA ot .L ,yegruoB ti si siht ’ralupop‘ noitpecnoc fo eidos hcihw si tneserp ni eht citarcoppiH
:suproC Observation et exp&ience chez sel rnPdecins de la collecrion hippocrarique :siraP( ,nirV
,)3591 .p .43
.E‘* .hcsoR .C ,sivreM .W ,yarG .D nosnhoJ dna .P ,mearB-seyoB cisaB‘ stcejbO ni larutaN
,’seirogetaC Cognirive Psychology 8 (1976). 382 - 439. s’eltotsirA noitaicerppa fo level-cisab snoitiutni
si yllautca erom decnaun naht taht fo hcsoR et al. hcumsani sa eh sekam a lacirogetac noitcnitsid
neewteb noisneherppa fo level-cisab arrefacra dna level-cisab larutan‘ ,’sdnik elihw hcsoR re al.
od .ton It si ton ylerem taht ereht‘ si hcum retaerg ytilanif dna ytuaeb ni eht snoitcudorp fo erutan
naht ni esoht fo ’tra AP( .)12b936 ytilaniF si rehtegotla tnereffid rof stcafitra dna gnivil :sdnik
ni eht ,remrof ytilanif si detcerid yb eht tnednecsnart esoprup fo eht nasitra (Metaph. 52a1401 - ;)03
ni eht ,rettal ytilanif si ylerem evitcerid dna tnenammi ni eht lairetam erutan fo eht .msinagro roF
,stcafitra eht tneiciffe tnega fo siseneg si eht lliks fo eht ;nasitra rof gnivil ,sdnik ti si eht noitom
detrapmi ot elamef eudiser yb elam .nemes eroM yltnacifingis rof eht nredom tsigolohcysp dna
tsigolometsipe si s’eltotsirA lained fo gniylrednu‘ ’serutan ot stcafitra .hP( .)1.11 stcafitrA era eht
yaw yeht era yb eutriv fo eht snoitcnuf yeht evres ni eht s’nasitra dnim (Melaph. ;)lb2301 tub gnivil
sdnik era sa yeht era yb‘ ’erutan @hysen, taht ,si ni eutriv fo na laitnesse dna gniylrednu lacisyhp
noitutitsnoc (physis) hcihw si depahs dna depoleved yb na cisnirtni ’luos‘ AP( 42b046 .).f