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Page i Lives and Legacies: An Encyclopedia of People Who Changed the World Scientists, Mathematicians, and Inventors Edited by Doris Simonis Writers Caroline Hertzenberg John Luoma Tami Schuyler Jonathan Secaur Doris Simonis Daniel Steinberg Valerie Tomaselli Gayle Weaver Kelly Wilson ORYX PRESS 1999 Page ii The rare Arabian Oryx is believed to have inspired the myth of the unicorn. This desert antelope became virtually extinct in the early 1960s. At that time several groups of international conservationists arranged to have nine animals sent to the Phoenix Zoo to be the nucleus of a captive breeding herd. Today the Oryx population is over 1,000, and over 500 have been returned to the Middle East. © 1999 by The Oryx Press 4041 North Central at Indian School Road, Phoenix, Arizona 850123397 Produced by The Moschovitis Group, Inc. 95 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016 Executive Editor: Valerie Tomaselli Senior Editor: Hilary Poole Design and Layout: Annemarie Redmond Original Illustrations: Lucille Lacey Copyediting and Proofreading: Carole Campbell, Carol Sternhell, Melanie Rella Index: AEIOU, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from The Oryx Press. Published simultaneously in Canada Printed and Bound in the United States of America ISBN 1573561517 Library of Congress CataloginginPublication Data Simonis, Doris A. Scientists, mathematicians, and inventors: lives and legacies: an encyclopedia of people who changed the world / by Doris Simonis. —(Lives and legacies) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1573561517 (alk. paper) 1. Scientists—Biography—Encyclopedias. 2. Mathematicians— Biography—Encyclopedias. 3. Inventors—Biography—Encyclopedias. I. Title. II. Series. Q141.S54 1999 509.2'2—dc21 [B] 9848484 CIP The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Science—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48, 1984. Page iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Listing of Biographies iv Introduction vx The Biographies Biographies 1200 Appendices, Bibliography, and Index Appendix One: Timeline 203208 Appendix Two: Geographic Listing of Biographies 209214 Appendix Three: Listing of Biographies by Discipline 215220 Bibliography 221226 Index 227244 Page iv LISTING OF BIOGRAPHIES Abel, Niels Henrik Agassiz, Louis, & Elizabeth Agassiz Agnesi, Maria Agricola, Georgius Aiken, Howard Hathaway Ampère, André Appert, NicolasFrançois Archimedes Arrhenius, Svante Avogadro, Amedeo Babbage, Charles Bacon, Francis Bardeen, John Barton, Clara Bateson, William Becquerel, AntoineHenri Bell, Alexander Graham Bernoulli, Jakob, & Johann Bernoulli Bessel, Friedrich Bessemer, Henry Bjerknes, Vilhelm Black, Joseph Blackwell, Elizabeth Bohr, Niels Boltzmann, Ludwig Boole, George Borlaug, Norman Ernest Born, Max Bose, Satyendranath Boyle, Robert Brahe, Tycho Braille, Louis Bramah, Joseph Brooks, Harriet Brown, Robert Buffon, Georges Bunsen, Robert Burbank, Luther Cannon, Annie Jump Carnot, Sadi Carothers, Wallace Carson, Rachel Carver, George Washington Cauchy, AugustinLouis Cavendish, Henry Chadwick, James Clausius, Rudolf Comstock, Anna Botsford Copernicus, Nicolaus Cousteau, JacquesYves Crick, Francis, & James Watson Curie, Marie Cuvier, Georges Daguerre, Louis Dalton, John Darby, Abraham Darwin, Charles Davy, Humphry Descartes, René Diesel, Rudolf Drew, Charles Eastman, George Edison, Thomas Ehrlich, Paul Einstein, Albert Eratosthenes Euclid Euler, Leonhard Everson, Carrie J. Faraday, Michael Fermat, Pierre de Fermi, Enrico Feynman, Richard Fibonacci, Leonardo Fleming, Alexander Ford, Henry Franklin, Benjamin Franklin, Rosalind FraserReid, Bertram Freud, Sigmund Fuchs, Leonhard Galen of Pergamum Galilei, Galileo Gates, Bill Gauss, Carl Friedrich GayLussac, JosephLouis GellMann, Murray Germain, Sophie Goddard, Robert H. Goodall, Jane Goodyear, Charles Gutenberg, Johannes Haber, Fritz Hahn, Otto Hall, Charles, & Julia Martin Hall Halley, Edmond Hargreaves, James Harrison, John Harvey, William Hawking, Stephen Heisenberg, Werner Herschel, Caroline Lucretia Herschel, William Hess, Harry Hammond Hippocrates Hooke, Robert Hopper, Grace Murray Howe, Elias Hubble, Edwin Huygens, Christiaan Hypatia of Alexandria Ibn Sina (Avicenna) Jenner, Edward Jones, Amanda Joule, James Prescott Julian, Percy Lavon Just, Ernest Everett Kekulé von Stradonitz, August Kelvin, Lord (William Thomson) Kepler, Johannes Khwarizmi, al, Mohammed ibn Musa Koch, Robert Kovalevsky, Sonya Landsteiner, Karl Lavoisier, Antoine Leakey, Mary Le Châtelier, HenriLouis Leeuwenhoek, Antoni van Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm Linnaeus, Carolus Lister, Joseph Lovelace (Countess of), Augusta Ada Lumière, August & Louis Lumière Lyell, Charles Malpighi, Marcello Marconi, Guglielmo Maxwell, James Clerk McClintock, Barbara McCormick, Cyrus Hall Mead, Margaret Meitner, Lise Mendel, Gregor Mendeleyev, Dmitry Mercator, Gerardus Metchnikoff, Élie Mitchell, Maria Morgan, Garrett Morse, Samuel Morton, William Newcomen, Thomas Newton, Isaac Nightingale, Florence Noether, Emmy Noguchi, Hideyo Ohm, Georg Oppenheimer, J. Robert Otto, Nikolaus August Paracelsus Paré, Ambroise Pascal, Blaise Pasteur, Louis Pauling, Linus Pavlov, Ivan Pincus, Gregory Planck, Max Poincaré, Henri Priestley, Joseph Pythagoras Raman, Chandrasekhara Venkata Razi, ar, Abu Bakr Muhammad Roentgen, Wilhelm Russell, Bertrand Rutherford, Ernest Sakharov, Andrey Semmelweis, Ignaz Sholes, Christopher Sikorsky, Igor Somerville, Mary Fairfax Stephenson, George Swallow Richards, Ellen Takamine, Jokichi Tesla, Nikola Torricelli, Evangelista Ts'ai Lun Vesalius, Andraes Volta, Alessandro Von Békésy, Georg Von Humboldt, Alexander Von Neumann, John WatsonWatt, Robert Watt, James Wegener, Albert Lothar Whitney, Eli Williams, Daniel Hale Wöhler, Friedrich Wright, Jane Cooke Wright, Orville, & Wilbur Wright Wu, ChienShiung Yalow, Rosalind Sussman Yukawa, Hideki Page v INTRODUCTION This volume of concise biographies of scientists, inventors, and mathematicians is different from most resources about people who influenced their various cultures. Not only have contributions been described in the context of the individual's life, society, and discipline, but also the longterm effects of each individual's work are considered as a global legacy. Unlike traditional encyclopedias, which present facts of individual lives in isolation, this volume makes the thread of interactions between science, technology, and society more apparent in the fabric of human history. Accordingly, the selection criteria for the 200 exemplars of scientific, mathematical, and inventive thinking were different from those of standard works. Although many famous contributors to knowledge and technology are included, we have also deliberately chosen some people who are not wellknown and whose contributions were made by overcoming societal barriers to their productivity. In following this mandate, we have selected and described individuals who fall into one or both of the following categories: a) their life and work had significant influence on society in general or on their discipline in particular and their influence extended beyond their lifetime; or b) their work extended beyond the limits imposed on these individuals by contemporary society. This category includes women and minorities whose contributions and legacies were limited because of societal constraints. We used a flexible selection process based on the two categories above to decide which scientists, inventors, and mathematicians to include in this volume. The attempt to embrace a wider variety of thinkers and doers was sometimes frustrated by the limited information and scholarship available in English about persons of earlier times and various cultures. However, all of those chosen did contribute something new or rare to human society, communicating through their work, ideas, and lives new perspectives on what is possible. In addition, we used a specific definition of science and related fields to shape our selection process, a definition that emphasized creative thinking as opposed to discovery of existing realities. Science develops from contrarian thinking that produces testable new ideas, rather than the identification of new continents or petrified fossils. Without this distinction, recognition of wellknown "greats" in exploration and discovery might have overshadowed recognition of the lesserknown but significant achievements of people who are underrepresented in most historical and biographical works. In choosing to illustrate a wide variety of contributors, and given the space limitations for this publication, many worthy people have not been included. But we hope that readers will be intrigued by the variety of people, ideas, and inventions noted herein that have contributed to the culture, choices, and comforts available to citizens of Earth. Practitioners in the field of medicine are included in this volume even though, in the strictest sense, they do not fit our contemporary definition of science. We have done this because of popular notions concerning the nature of medical practice. Indeed, for many readers, the best known "scientist" is their family doctor, the best "invention" would be a cure for cancer or heart disease, and "mathematics" is required to consider how to pay for these resources. These popular understandings suggest the need for working definitions of science, invention, mathematics, and medicine that highlight their characteristic differences and similarities with other areas of human creativity. Like a timeline, these considerations begin with the oldest of these creative fields, invention of technology. <><><><><><><><><><><><> INVENTION is concerned with practical problems requiring new things: devices or processes (technologies) that improve the human condition. Invention is one of the oldest areas of human creativity. Fire, clothing, nets and snares, scrapers and diggers, baskets and bowls, musical instruments and weapons, metallurgy and food preservation all developed long before recorded history—when science or even its prototypes, astrology and alchemy, did not exist. The practical roots of inventions are evident in the contribution they have made to human survival and culture. Page vi One of the most obvious benefits of many inventions is that they saved time, which could be used for education and intellectual pursuits. Laborsaving devices helped to eliminate slavery, fire and lighting provided both safety and usable hours for afterdark communication and craft development, agriculture made stable settlements possible, and technologies for water purification and vaccinations extended human life wherever they were used. However, the popular perception of technology as applied science is not supported by most historians. Technology has a much more ancient history. It typically (but not always) precedes science and makes possible new observations and methods of testing scientific ideas. Antoni Van Leeuwenhoek discovered his "invisible world" by using his hand lens, a standard draper's tool, to inspect more than the weave of custom fabrics. Galilei Galileo found that the telescope was invaluable to demonstrate evidence supporting Nicolaus Copernicus's theory that the Earth revolved around the Sun, but it was not invented for that purpose. John Harrison's superb craftsmanship and knowledge of woods were the keys to solving the longitude problem that had stumped theoretical scientists like Isaac Newton and Edmond Halley, his contemporaries. The Wright brothers' airplane was an exercise in practical problem solving, but the Wrights' systematic analyses of wing design provided basic data, which became a foundation for aerodynamics and aeronautical engineering, fields of knowledge that did not even exist before their successful flights. There is a real difference between an inventor knowing how to solve practical problems, even ones so challenging as making sea voyages of predictable duration and making human flight possible, and a scientist describing nature in ways that support the development of navigational systems or ways that explain how heavierthanair machines can seem to defy gravity. In these relatively recent examples that difference may be less important than the fact that technology stimulates science and vice versa. Louis Pasteur, who was both an inventor (vaccines, pasteurization) and a scientist (germ theory), once wrote that science and technology are as related as apples are to their tree. In this analogy, which came first historically is much less important than that both remain healthy. <><><><><><><><><><><><> Mathematicians develop and apply intellectual tools that enable people to describe and identify patterns in nature and events. They use MATHEMATICS, the language of particular sequences of reasoning, which allows recognition, coherent descriptions, and predictions of patterns in time and space. Mathematics allows both practical and imaginative problem solving in real and hypothetical contexts. Mathematics is another kind of thinking and communicating whose origins predate verbal history. Sticks and bones notched for tallies and "sighting stones" that track the movements of the Sun have been found on several continents. These finds have been interpreted as evidence of ways people may have recorded hunting outcomes and anticipated planting times. Some researchers speculate that mathematics as a record keeping function is a natural, universal script older than other written languages. Measurement and record keeping were essential to planning construction, securing sufficient building materials and food for work crews, and for dividing inheritances. Records of exchanges were vital to the success of traders on every continent as civilizations began to be centered on coastal cities. As writing developed, so did number systems. The best known are the Roman and HinduArabic number systems. In early recorded history, mathematics that went beyond simple measurement probably began in Mesopotamia (now Iraq) and Egypt many centuries before the Christian era. A millennium of greats living on or near the Mediterranean Sea included the mathematicians Thales, Pythagoras, Euclid, Archimedes, Eratosthenes, and Hypatia. After the destruction of the library in Alexandria (391) and the sack of Rome (455), the intellectual momentum was sustained in Persia where alKhwarizmi and others preserved the legacy of mathematics through their writings. In the Roman Empire, trained specialists had to manipulate counting boards and record results in Roman numerals. The tedious tallying of census figures, crop production, mineral wealth, size of armies, etc., was the professional work of reckoning specialists on whom entire economies depended well into the Middle Ages. Leonardo Fibonacci's thirteenthcentury introduction to Europe of the more userfriendly Arabic numbers (and the revolutionary concept of zero that came with them) did not change established practice quickly. However, Johannes Gutenberg's invention of the movabletype printing press 200 years later not only institutionalized the use of Arabic numerals but also made mathematical works widely accessible. This was the turning point in the acceptance of numbers now familiar to school children around the world. Mathematics—and its search for logically consistent patterns in number, space, matter, and human imagination— Page vii has had great influence in contemporary societies. And some contemporary mathematical models (global warming) and theories (game theories, economic projections) have themselves been generated by a series of twentiethcentury inventions that speed calculations. Computers have expanded the possible number and kinds of patterns to be explored, an example of technology providing the means for creative investigations that would have been as impossible—as was detection of tiny living animals in a drop of water before the magnifying lens was crafted. <><><><><><><><><><><><> MEDICINE is primarily a practical art that grew out of knowledge of plant extracts, in particular, that could relieve pain, reduce fever, or speed childbirth. Illness required addition of these natural products and/or removal of bodily fluids believed to be out of balance within the individual patient. Medicine has a long association with science and invention, growing out of both educational practices and human values. Dissection, one of the most rudimentary tools of medicine, arose from educational practices in a nonmedical field. The first universities like the twelfthcentury University of Bologna (modern Italy), offered only one specialized advanced degree (in law). The first dissections of corpses were done in law schools to determine whether murder had been committed; otherwise, autopsies were generally forbidden throughout the western world. By the thirteenth century, the first medical school was organized in Bologna, and stories about Hippocrates and works by Galen, alRazi, and Ibn Sina were the handwritten bibles from which lecturers preached. Like Galen, instructors typically had a distaste for dissection. Autopsies and invasive surgery were generally avoided, but by the 1530s they were a part of the medical school program in Paris. Andreas Vesalius was probably the first professor there to demonstrate directly (as opposed to delegating dissection to a lowly assistant) the relationships between internal human body systems and was the first to base his anatomical drawings on observations instead of assumptions and inferences. Many early scientists were physicians who explored a scientific interest during and after formal studies in medicine. Carolus Linnaeus, for example, developed his passion for grouping and classifying plants after being introduced to botanical remedies as part of his professional training. Starting in the sixteenth century, there were 400 years of inquirers and experimenters who had medical school education. Some examples in this volume are Paracelsus, Ambroise Paré, William Harvey, Marcello Malpighi, Joseph Black, Edward Jenner, Friedrich Wöhler, Louis and Elizabeth Cary Agassiz, Ignaz Semmelweis, William Morton, Joseph Lister, Robert Koch, Ivan Pavlov, Paul Ehrlich, Sigmund Freud, Karl Landsteiner, and Alexander Fleming. During the twentieth century, however, scientific specializations and advanced degrees in disciplines like biochemistry, genetics, physiology, neurology, bacteriology, and immunology had become the norm for researchers while medical doctors were trained to be practitioners. The power of a "safe attack" on a human being via a vaccine was not validated until the nineteenth century and widespread use of vaccines is a twentiethcentury phenomenon. However, they are still not universally administered (poverty and religious objections are among the reasons) despite the signal success of eliminating at least one global scourge, smallpox, by this means and preventing wholesale epidemics of several others. Other advances in modern medicine were also made during the nineteenth century. The stethoscope was invented and became an indispensable tool. Ignaz Semmelweis and Florence Nightingale used statistics to develop a rationale for sanitary practices. They invented effective procedures without the rationale of Pasteur's germ theory. Joseph Lister learned of Pasteur's work through translations his wife made for him, and his use of carbolic acid became standard antiseptic procedure for surgery, greatly reducing infections. The twentieth century saw major advances based on earlier innovations. After Elie Metchnikoff identified phagocytes (cells that engulf foreign materials in the body) and other experimenters of the nineteenth century (Pasteur, Jenner, Koch, Ehrlich) showed the effectiveness of a series of vaccines, other ways to help natural immunity were developed such as blood transfusions, antibiotics, bone marrow transplants, and Tcell infusions in the twentieth century. Other advances included diagnostic use of Xray machines that came into use at the beginning of the twentieth century. Sophisticated imaging systems like ultrasound, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), and computerized tomography (CT) were all added to the noninvasive options available to physicians by the end of the twentieth century. Surgical strategies were expanded by technology to include microsurgery with specialized tools, and treatment options were multiplied thanks to chemical synthesis of many drugs, enzymes, and hormones that were once available only from living organisms. Page viii Since nearly everyone has direct experience with advances in medical practices, the relationship between invention and quality of life is most often recognized in this area. So, too, the legacies of individuals who make contributions in this field are most easily understood. <><><><><><><><><><><><> Scientists are more than discoverers of existing realities. SCIENCE is a creative act; it requires new perspectives on what is known, integration of knowledge into new generalizations or subsuming concepts, and development of comprehensive understandings of how the natural universe works, providing direction for future inquiries, forecasts, discoveries, and events. Science generates new ideas about nature and ways to test those ideas. Explorers, adventurers, and voyageurs may "discover" existing land masses, species, or materials not yet recognized by people in their homelands, but they rarely originate powerful ideas, insights, or theories that relate their findings to other knowledge and understandings. (Geographer Alexander von Humboldt is a notable exception) Another important aspect of science is defining how to study nature. Using instruments to help observe evidence outside of their personal influence and using mathematics to help explain their findings, scientists detect patterns and relationships of universal significance. The key indicator of a tenable scientific generalization is that nature does not provide contradictions to humanlydescribed patterns. Of course, it is desirable that colleagues agree that a particular explanation (theory) is elegant and satisfying, but the truth of a theory should depend on confirmations from the physical world, not affirmations from human hearts. In this regard, science is quite different from poetry, music, and philosophy. Science is a way of problem defining and problem solving that provides creative perspectives—seeing things or events in ways they have not been seen before. In other words, at its highest level, science generates new ideas and explanations about how nature works. The hardest part, the one least often achieved, is envisioning things in a way that has not been done before. Knowledge is not enough. Ancient astrologers on several continents had made accurate measurements of the movement of the Sun, moon, planets, and major constellations. But the basic assumption that Earth is a stationary platform around Which all heavenly bodies move prevented the most careful and accurate observers from considering any alternatives. Copernicus's attempt to demonstrate mathematically what the celestial motions would look like to an observer on the Sun required a creative leap to an assumption contrary to common observations. His insight was particularly unwelcome for political and religious reasons. In his time, human worth was measured in large part by creation stories that described Earth as made expressly for people and centrally located in the universe as testimony to their importance. A Suncentered planetary system undermined the power of that argument and the people who used it. Some historians claim that without certain technologies, science did not even exist as anything more than philosophical musings about the natural world. Copernicus's revolutionary concept would have been nothing more than an imaginative personal perspective without the extended vision that a telescope provided and Galileo's interpretations of sights it allowed. Another important break scientists made with the past was the promotion of free and open communication about observations, experiments, and analyses of findings. Modern science broke away from philosophy when Renaissance thinkers not only took a fresh look at nature but also publicly described and defended their viewpoints. Unlike Pythagoreans and alchemists, they did not try to keep their new knowledge secret. Galileo in the early seventeenth century conducted experiments in a systematic way, using mathematics as well as words. He described his work so logically that most educated people accepted both his methods and his analysis. Later in the same century scientists like Robert Boyle stressed the importance of publishing articles about scientific observations so that they could be replicated by others as tests of their acceptability. Soon after Newton presented his breakthrough concepts to a receptive audience, colleagues in the Royal Society of London. He outlined laws that unified the heavens and Earth into one universal machine, completing a revolution that recognized science as a way of knowing distinct from philosophy. The scientific world was expanded further by a succession of other original thinkers. By the middle of the nineteenth century, John Dalton had laid the foundations of atomic theory, James Maxwell had developed an inclusive theory uniting electricity, light, and magnetism, and Charles Darwin provided a coherent explanation for the observed diversity of living species with his theory of evolution. More insights on the material world were developed during the twentieth century. A previously unknown realm of Page ix nuclear transformations was revealed by Marie Curie—radioactivity. Her work in radioactivity was the beginning of a better understanding of the internal state of an atomic nucleus. Quantum mechanics led Werner Heisenberg to propose the uncertainty principle, which recognizes limits—in the subatomic realm—to the precise application of classical concepts of location, energy, velocity, and momentum. Albert Einstein developed theories of relativity that recognize relationships between space and time, inertia and gravity, energy and mass. And the concept of the universe as an expanding duster of galaxies was the brainchild of Edwin Hubble. New ideas are usually unacceptable to conventional thinkers, especially those who assume that everything important is already known and understood. The most exciting and integrative ideas are often resisted because they require unlearning traditional teachings and/or changing the way of thinking about information in general. Creative scientific work is usually not the result of accumulation of data and searches for accuracy and certainty. It is, instead, a product of independent thinking when looking into the heart of nature. Individuals like those mentioned above exhibited this contrary trait: they proposed new ways of looking at their part of the universe. They did this often to the discomfort of colleagues who "didn't know that they were bound to a model, and you couldn't show them," as Barbara McClintock said when reflecting on the years when her reports of "jumping genes" were either jeered at or ignored. The hidden web of tacit assumptions that limit human thinking has had to be broken again and again to accommodate new observations, unexpected experimental results, and ideas that create relationships among various constituents of the material world. There is a noteworthy dimension to science that makes it a special kind of creative thought. It is the assumption that the universe is knowable and that relationships observed in one part of it will be true everywhere. This makes science less culturebound than music, poetry, and other forms of art. More than one person may independently discover the same element, the same physical laws, or the same regularity of events. All humankind shares the reality of the natural world as it exists beyond personal and political orientations. Whether human perceptions of that physical world are determined by external reality, whether we alter that reality in the processes of experimentation and exploration, and whether our understandings merely reflect the way human minds work are all subjects of ongoing debates. Albert Einstein's viewpoint was that: . . . we are somewhat like a man trying to understand the mechanism of a closed watch. He sees the face and the moving hands, even hears it ticking, but he has no way of opening the case. If he is ingenious, he may form some picture of a mechanism which could be responsible for all the things he observes, but he may never be quite sure his picture is the only one which could explain his observations. This humble recognition of the tentativeness of scientific knowledge may not appeal to lovers of certainty, but it is a hallmark of modern science. <><><><><><><><><><><><> That nearly 75% of the biographies in this volume describe people who lived during the last 200 years should be no surprise. Science is a relatively recent discipline. There are probably more scientists and mathematicians living now than the total of all those in the past. Some of that number is simply a reflection of the unprecedented size of the human population (six billion vs. one billion as recently as 200 years ago), some is a product of access to education by more people than ever before in history, and some is attributable to the positive aspects of technology that have allowed longer, healthier lives with time for study. The role of literacy and education is especially important to note in the lives of these significant people who influenced our world. The printing press spread new ways of thinking beyond the monastery and the university. The necessity to master Latin as the secret language of knowledge was also removed when publications in people's spoken languages became relatively quick and inexpensive to produce. Skilled translators and interpreters like Mary Somerville became more than helpmates for a single person (as were Lavoisier's and Lister's wives)—their texts were used by generations of new readers. Obtaining higher education is a recent privilege for most people. Some women (notably Marie Curie, Lise Meitner, Emmy Noether, Harriet Brooks) began their struggles for independence in thought and action by meeting requirements to teach children, one of the few options for selfsufficiency open to women. The societal roadblocks to college education for women were first removed in the United States when some colleges for women were opened that stressed sciences (Mt. Holyoke in 1837; Vassar, where Maria Mitchell taught in 1865) and where new state uni
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