Scientific Scuba Diver Course according to AS/NZS 2299.2:2002 Manual compiled by Pierre Madl ...

126 Pages·2007·7.8 MB·English

Scientific Scuba Diver Manual (AS/NZS 2299.2:2002) 1/123 Introduction

Scientific Scuba Diver Course
To
AS/NZS 2299.2:2002

Manual compiled by
Pierre Madl and Maricela Yip

Based on the lectures given by

Boating & Diving Officer
Noel Teufel at the Centre of Marine Studies
University of Queensland

Glen Halter Queensland Ambulance

Occupational Health and Safety Officer
Gary Chaplin at the Centre of Marine Studies
University of Queensland

Hyperbaric Recompression Chamber
Dr. Robert Long
at the Wesley Hospital Brisbane

Acknowledgements for assisting during
Brad Hutcheson
the practical Dive Lectures

Salzburg (AUT) / Brisbane (AUS), February 2003
Scientific Scuba Diver Manual (AS/NZS 2299.2:2002) 2/123 Introduction

The perfect SCUBA outfit
Scientific Scuba Diver Manual (AS/NZS 2299.2:2002) 3/123 Introduction
Table of Contents

Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................... 6
1. Scientific Scuba Diver (SSD) .......................................................................................................................... 7
Responsibilities and concepts of a SSD .......................................................................................................... 7
Diving at work ................................................................................................................................................ 7
2. Inspection and Execution of current Standards ............................................................................................... 9
Penalties .......................................................................................................................................................... 9
3. Risk, Risk Factors, Risk Control, and Risk Assessment for Diving.............................................................. 10
Risk Factors .................................................................................................................................................. 10
Risk Control .................................................................................................................................................. 11
Risk Assessment ........................................................................................................................................... 12
Dive Planing and Risk Assessment ............................................................................................................... 14
Simplified Risk Calculation .......................................................................................................................... 14
Detailed Risk Calculation - Record of RISK ASSESSMENT FOR UQ DIVING OPERATIONS .............. 15
Qualitative Risk Assessment tables ............................................................................................................... 16
4. Role and Function of a Scientific Scuba Diver (SSD) .................................................................................. 19
Research Diving Operation Log .................................................................................................................... 20
Responsibilities of the Team Supervisor during the course .......................................................................... 20
5. Diving Physics .............................................................................................................................................. 21
The Physical world ........................................................................................................................................ 21
Gases in Diving ............................................................................................................................................. 21
Measuring the Physical World and the SI-System ........................................................................................ 21
Density .......................................................................................................................................................... 22
Buoyancy ...................................................................................................................................................... 22
Pressure ......................................................................................................................................................... 23
Kinetic Theory of Gases................................................................................................................................ 23
Energy ........................................................................................................................................................... 25
Light .............................................................................................................................................................. 25
Sound ............................................................................................................................................................ 25
Heat ............................................................................................................................................................... 26
Propulsion, Drag, and Trim ........................................................................................................................... 26
6. Diving Physiology – Fitness, Respiration, and Circulation........................................................................... 27
Diving Fitness ............................................................................................................................................... 27
Respiration .................................................................................................................................................... 30
Ventilation ..................................................................................................................................................... 30
Lung Volumes and Capacities ...................................................................................................................... 31
Circulation ..................................................................................................................................................... 32
Effects of Immersion on Circulation ............................................................................................................. 33
Circulatory and general Physiological Problems .......................................................................................... 33
Breathing Problems ....................................................................................................................................... 36
Diving Maladies – Signs and Symptoms ...................................................................................................... 38
7. DeCompression Illness (DCI) / DeCompression Sickness (DCS) ................................................................ 40
Types of DCS: ............................................................................................................................................... 41
Symptoms of DCS ........................................................................................................................................ 41
Risk Factors favouring DCI / DCS ............................................................................................................... 42
Five Minute Neurological Exam ................................................................................................................... 42
Treatment of DCI and DCS: ......................................................................................................................... 43
Compressed Gas Treatment Record .............................................................................................................. 43
8. Decompression and Recompression .............................................................................................................. 44
Decompression Theories ............................................................................................................................... 44
Dive Tables ................................................................................................................................................... 45
Special Dive Table Procedures ..................................................................................................................... 46
Dive Computer Theory and Application ....................................................................................................... 48
Aids to Decompression ................................................................................................................................. 48
9. Rescue ........................................................................................................................................................... 49
The “Zero Accident” Goal ............................................................................................................................ 49
Pre-Emergency Signs .................................................................................................................................... 49
Stress - Chain of events ................................................................................................................................. 50
Dealing with “Out of Air” Situations ............................................................................................................ 50
Rescue and Rescue Techniques..................................................................................................................... 52
Underwater Rescue – Is it safe to intervene? ................................................................................................ 52
Scientific Scuba Diver Manual (AS/NZS 2299.2:2002) 4/123 Introduction
Surface Rescue .............................................................................................................................................. 53
In-Water Respiration ..................................................................................................................................... 54
Accident Management .................................................................................................................................. 56
10. First Aid and the Chain of Survival in Diving Accidents............................................................................ 57
Legal issues in 1st aid .................................................................................................................................... 57
The Chain of Survival ................................................................................................................................... 57
Risk of cross-infections ................................................................................................................................. 58
Victim assessment ......................................................................................................................................... 58
Resuscitation ................................................................................................................................................. 58
Breathing emergencies - Asthma .................................................................................................................. 61
Cardiac emergencies ..................................................................................................................................... 61
Shock and anaphylaxis .................................................................................................................................. 61
Soft tissue injuries, and Haemorrhages (Bleeding) ....................................................................................... 62
Chest injuries ................................................................................................................................................ 63
Dislocations, and fractures ............................................................................................................................ 63
Head and spinal injuries ................................................................................................................................ 64
Diabetes......................................................................................................................................................... 65
Eye injuries ................................................................................................................................................... 66
Epilepsy......................................................................................................................................................... 66
Stroke ............................................................................................................................................................ 66
Malaise and injuries predominantly related to SCUBA diving ..................................................................... 67
Cramps .......................................................................................................................................................... 67
Carotid sinus reflex ....................................................................................................................................... 67
Seasickness ................................................................................................................................................... 67
Disorientation and Vertigo ............................................................................................................................ 68
Dehydration ................................................................................................................................................... 68
Poisoning ....................................................................................................................................................... 68
Hypothermia ................................................................................................................................................. 71
Hyperthermia ................................................................................................................................................ 71
Venomous Bites and Stings .......................................................................................................................... 71
Burns ............................................................................................................................................................. 72
11. Oxygen Provider ......................................................................................................................................... 73
Why O .......................................................................................................................................................... 73
2
Handling O ................................................................................................................................................... 73
2
Administering O .......................................................................................................................................... 73
2
Practical Aspects ........................................................................................................................................... 74
Putting the System together .......................................................................................................................... 74
Demand Valve............................................................................................................................................... 75
Constant flow system .................................................................................................................................... 75
Recompression Therapy – The necessary 2nd Step ........................................................................................ 76
Hyperbaric Chambers ................................................................................................................................... 76
12. Diving Environment .................................................................................................................................... 78
Physical Aspects of water movement ............................................................................................................ 78
From Fetch to Waves .................................................................................................................................... 78
Surf ................................................................................................................................................................ 78
Tides .............................................................................................................................................................. 79
Currents and how to deal with them .............................................................................................................. 79
Thermal and salinity Changes ....................................................................................................................... 80
Weather Conditions ....................................................................................................................................... 80
Bottom Conditions ........................................................................................................................................ 80
Diving Environments (Fresh vs. Saltwater) .................................................................................................. 81
Biological Aspects (Aquatic Life)................................................................................................................. 81
13. Diving Equipment ....................................................................................................................................... 82
Scuba Systems............................................................................................................................................... 82
SCUBA Cylinders ......................................................................................................................................... 83
Cylinder Valves and Manifolds..................................................................................................................... 84
SCUBA Regulators ....................................................................................................................................... 84
Regulator Attachments: ................................................................................................................................. 86
Diving instruments ........................................................................................................................................ 86
Buoyancy Compensation Device (BCD) ...................................................................................................... 87
Dry Suits ....................................................................................................................................................... 87
Air Compressors ........................................................................................................................................... 88
Scientific Scuba Diver Manual (AS/NZS 2299.2:2002) 5/123 Introduction
14. Deeper Diving and Technical Diving Techniques ...................................................................................... 89
Diving Readiness .......................................................................................................................................... 89
Preparing to Dive .......................................................................................................................................... 89
Planning and Preparing for Successful Dives ............................................................................................... 89
Reducing Common Diving Risks .................................................................................................................. 90
Deep Diving (Planing & Execution) ............................................................................................................. 90
The Deep Dive .............................................................................................................................................. 91
Equipment Considerations ............................................................................................................................ 91
Environmental Hazards ................................................................................................................................. 92
Technical Diving ........................................................................................................................................... 93
Full-face-mask diving and u/w Voice Communication ................................................................................. 93
15. Navigation for Divers .................................................................................................................................. 94
Navigational Equipment for Divers .............................................................................................................. 94
Measuring Distance Underwater ................................................................................................................... 94
Means of Navigation ..................................................................................................................................... 94
Navigational Problems .................................................................................................................................. 95
Use of Charts ................................................................................................................................................. 95
Advanced Underwater Navigational Equipment ........................................................................................... 95
16. Limited Visibility and Night Diving ........................................................................................................... 96
What is Limited Visibility Diving? ............................................................................................................... 96
Factors Determining Water Visibility ........................................................................................................... 96
Techniques for Low Visibility Diving .......................................................................................................... 96
Night Diving and Equipment for Night Dives .............................................................................................. 98
The Night Dive.............................................................................................................................................. 98
17. Search and Light Salvage ............................................................................................................................ 99
Organization .................................................................................................................................................. 99
Risk Factors .................................................................................................................................................. 99
Search Patterns .............................................................................................................................................. 99
Light Salvage Procedures ............................................................................................................................ 101
Knots ........................................................................................................................................................... 101
Appendix ......................................................................................................................................................... 103
Diver Registration Form ............................................................................................................................. 103
Daily Diving and Boating Safety Record .................................................................................................... 104
Research Dive Operation Record Form ...................................................................................................... 105
Record of RISK ASSESSMENT form ........................................................................................................ 108
Scientific Divers Log Book ......................................................................................................................... 112
Rapid field Neuro Exam Record (1/1) ........................................................................................................ 114
Compressed Gas Treatment (1/1) ................................................................................................................ 115
Comments ................................................................................................................................................... 115
Information required when completing a workplace injury form (1/2) ....................................................... 116
Contact & Emergency Information ............................................................................................................. 117
Dive Medical Form (1/5) ............................................................................................................................ 118
Access to your personal information: .......................................................................................................... 122
References ................................................................................................................................................... 123
Scientific Scuba Diver Manual (AS/NZS 2299.2:2002) 6/123 Introduction
Introduction

Your attendance at this course is highly valued. In accordance with our Mission Statement that identifies our
desire to train students to World Best Standard Practices we request that you personally identify with a desire to
participate and achieve the highest standard within your capability. It is this attitude that will develop you into a
scientific diver and give you the satisfaction of a job well done. Whilst you strive for excellence it is well to
remember that a good job is a job done safely and with this in mind we request that you read and observe the
following guidelines.

Course Objective: the course objective is to give comprehensive instruction in occupational / scientific diving
to students with basic diving skills in order to prepare them for research / scientific in the research / scientific
diving industry. This is not a course intended to substitute a dive course for beginners (e.g. open water diver),
but rather builds upon the skills taught therein.

Safety: at the University of Queensland, safety is of paramount importance, and must be considered as the
primary consideration during each section of diver training. Students will be expected to make themselves
aware of, The University of Queensland’s safety policy as soon as practicable, and abide by all safety rules and
regulations set down by the Qld Workplace Health and Safety Act1.
Safety rules are to be strictly observed where applicable, and any student who has any concern whatsoever
should discuss the issue with the course instructor. Work boots are to be worn when handling cylinders or whilst
within the University of Queensland confines. Safety equipment is to be worn or used in areas so designated or
as requested by supervisory staff.

Unauthorized modification of dive equipment is not permitted.

Defective equipment should be reported to supervisory staff, appropriately tagged with a defect report and
entered into the quality assurance system.
Intoxication and/or personal dehabilitation from drug use is NOT tolerated. Whilst on course your body is
working to high physical levels and your mind needs to be tuned to the job. Your safety depends on you being
in control.
At all times consider your fellow diving companions - although the most important person is you - the safety of
those around you depends on your ability and concentration.
It is expected that students will wear the relevant safety equipment where appropriate or when designated a
“construction site” by the diving instructor.

Log Books: students will be issued with a temporary log book. Full instruction will be given in the
documentation of this book and will be examined as part of the final assessment. Log books are to be handed to
the students supervisor at the end of the week for checking and signing by the course instructor.

Housekeeping: all basic safety starts with good housekeeping, both on deck and in the quarters. Students are
expected to police and tidy the area’s they use during the course.

Body: the best equipment in the industry is only as good as the diver using it and likewise the total package is
only as good as the training and discipline the diver has in the use of both. Personal hygiene, health and fitness
are the top divers most important tools.

You are not expected to graduate from the Scientific Scuba Diver course an expert. But as a SSD with a
thorough knowledge of the basic skills required to be of value to yourself and your future employer. Then if you
have the right attitude, after the process of gaining the necessary experience, you should become an asset to
yourself and the scientific / research diving industry.

Target Group: This course aims at students and researchers performing scientific work underwater. An open
water ticket (PADI, SSI, NAUI, etc.) or equivalent is essential as the course does not cover basic underwater
skills. Participants should be 18 years of age or over and have at least 20 hours of recreational diving
experience.

1 http://www.uq.edu.au/ohs/
Scientific Scuba Diver Manual (AS/NZS 2299.2:2002) 7/123 Chapter 1
1. Scientific Scuba Diver (SSD)

Purpose of this SSD course:
• To increase practical and theoretical knowledge of scientific scuba diving.
• To ensure that scientific scuba divers are suitable qualified and trained to dive supervisor standards.
• To make scientific scuba divers aware of their responsibilities with reference to AS/NZS 2299.2:20022 and
Occupational Health and Safety requirements3.
•
Extra qualification of an SSD includes the following:
• Oxygen Provider (see Chapter 11)
• Radio Operator (see Marine Radio Operator Manual4)
• Boating License for vessel greater than 12m (not yet available)
• First Aid qualification (see Chapter 10)

Responsibilities and concepts of a SSD
The aim of this concept mainly focuses on the aspect of avoiding
prosecution and to be aware of the risks involved in diving.
Regulation is needed as many dive related incidents and accidents
are mainly due to the lack of understanding and knowledge about
diving in general and the risks involved. Regulations as those
proposed under the AS2299 standards made it possible to reduce
the number of dive related accidents to one fifth to those compared
with the USA in the same period of time5. These regulations are
set up by an independent body and an unbiased concept of the aims
and goals (usually, recreational standards are made in a way to
enable maximization of profitability, regardless of the fitness of
applying candidates – a reason why certificates obtained from
operators like PADI, SSI, etc. are not recognized by commercial
dive industry). A SSD should remember that Decompression
Incidents (DCI) are quite common especially in shallow water.
Among other topics described in the manual (see also fig. 1.1) the
cardinal responsibilities of a SSD are:
• Be on Time
• Bring your own equipment, as well as
• Bring the tools required for the dive tasks

Diving at work
(in accordance with the Occupational Health and Safety Legislation
- Application in the field):
Under the current legislation, a SSD is considered as an employee
of the University for which he performs the diving tasks. Unless
the SSD is a level 3 diver (commercial license), it is essential to
include outside contractors to perform the scientific task (e.g.
underwater drilling activity for coral bore hole samples, for the
operation of hydrostatic suction pumps, etc.), or even to include
the help of other persons to get the underwater tasks properly
done.
Diving at the workplace may involve:
• Designers, manufacturers, importers, and suppliers of plant.
Fig. 1.1:General Boating, Diving, and
• Erectors and installers of a certain plant.
Snorkelling Information 6
• Manufacturers, importers and suppliers of substances required
underwater (fixation chemicals like formalin, etc.).
• Owners of specified high-risk plants.
• Workers and others

2 https://committees.standards.com.au/COMMITTEES/SF-017/PRODUCTS/
3 http://www.uq.edu.au/ohs/
4 http://www.sbg.ac.at/ipk/avstudio/pierofun/funpage.htm
Scientific Scuba Diver Manual (AS/NZS 2299.2:2002) 8/123 Chapter 1
Such obligation is discharged by regulations or ministerial notice. It prescribes procedures and
recommendations, following advisory standard equally to or better than; if none are applicable, reasonable
precaution and diligence should be employed. Current mandatory regulation to which the Scientific Diving
community is bound to:
• Workplace Health and Safety Act (includes fines)
• Workplace Health and Safety Regulation
• Workplace Health and Safety Advisory Standards (set up by the ruling body of expert)
• Industry Codes of Practice
• Australian Standards
• Other Standards of Information relative to the activity
Applicable advisory standards do include a RISK ASSESSMENT (see Chapter 3), First Aid qualification,
Directives of Manual tasks, as well as the impact of noise due to running compressors nearby.

For example: the following sections of the Workplace Health and Safety Regulation state:
• Section 52, 53, 54: Notification, Recording and Direction for Management ( every incident must be reported
to the supervisor or dive officer)
• Section 76 to 78: Interpretations-, Construction Diving Work and ADAS (Australian Diver Association
Scheme); regard construction diving and is not of relevance for the SSD, as they usually lack level 3
classification.
• Section 78 to 79: Dive Medical according to AS 2299; includes all working divers like fish collectors, sea
cucumber collectors, and other activities involving the recuperation of marine species via SCUBA
equipment.
• Section 80: Qualifications according to ADAS
• Section 81: Diver Supervisor
• Section 83: RCC and ADAS qualified operator to be available
• Section 84: Hyperbaric recompression chamber operated by ADAS qualified personal
• Section 85: Restrictions to the use of self contained breathing apparatus (SCUBA)
• Section 86: Restriction to the use of surface supplied breathing apparatus (SSBA)
• Section 86A to 86J: involves the recreational diving industry (you pay someone taking you out for a dive).
Section 86A: Requirement to discharge
Section 86B: Headcounts (prior to and after the dive trip, finalized with the signature of the diver); a safe
procedure involves a double headcount (headcount, signature, headcount).
Section 86C: Medical for Resort divers
Section 86D: Lookout and Rescue staff both for boat and land-based operation
Section 86E: Supervision of resort divers
Section 86F: Dive safety logs
• Section 86G to 86J: involves the recreational snorkel industry.
Section 86G: Requirement to discharge
Section 86B: Headcounts (prior to and after the snorkel trip, finalized with the signature of the snorkeller); );
a safe procedure involves a double headcount (headcount, signature, headcount).
Section 86C: Medical for snorkellers
Section 86D: Lookout and Rescue staff both for boat and land-based operation
Section 86E: Supervision of resort divers
Section 86F: Dive safety logs
Compressed Air Recreational Diving and Recreational Snorkelling: The code provides further information to
assist with the implementation of the sections of the regulation.
Furthermore, information is provided about equipment that should be used, air purity, skills and knowledge
issues, diver rescue and first aid, dive records, guidance notes regarding some maladies and general hazard area,
i.e.: plant noise, hazardous substances involved with the dive, manual handling and work environment.

Diving Skills - is used by all persons who dive whether they are construction, photographer, scientist, military,
police or oilrig divers. In any case, skills should be so advanced that surface repetitions (a major cause of DCI)
can be avoided at any time of the dive.
Task Skills – or the work that they are doing to perform can be very specific to the goals of the employer
although one would expect that a maritime archaeologist and oil rig diver using a “Broco” ultra-thermic cutter
would be trained to the same level for the same type of work.

5 N. Teufel 17th of Feb. 2003, lecturing comment
6 http://www.geosp.uq.edu.au/11arspc/downloads/
Scientific Scuba Diver Manual (AS/NZS 2299.2:2002) 9/123 Chapter 2
2. Inspection and Execution of current Standards
Currently three Health and Safety Inspectors operate along the Queensland coast, together with their associates,
amount to about 100 inspectors enforcing these standards. Their powers to monitor and enforce current
legislation include the following:
• Search, inspect, measure, photograph (document) diving operations.
• Take anything not in rule, and includes the copy(right) of documents.
• Investigate workplace incidents (an incident is not an accident – in an incident nobody was harmed, e.g.
onboard equipment, or emergency gear is improperly maintained or even non functional).

Tools of enforcement:
Inspectors may impose notices (allowing time to fix it within a given period) or in severe cases may even lead to
confiscation of items not in line or in severe cases even the entire vessel.
• Improvement notices
• Prohibition notices
• Seizure of equipment.
These measures are appealable, but come along with:
• On the spot fines,
• Court injunctions (court rulings), and
• Prosecution

Penalties
Ignoring the warnings may bring about the exclusion from the project or may even induce penalties according to
the regulations. Section 24 of the AS2299 standard lists the penalties (penalty units, PU = A$757):
• Inducing a dive related Death or grievous bodily harm (GBH) quotes 2000 PUs or 2 years imprisonment.
• Exposure to substances likely to cause GBH quotes 500 PUs or 1 year imprisonment.
• For any other injury lighter than GBH quotes 400 or 6 months imprisonment.
Any other breach of workplace Health and Safety Regulation that result in dive related incidents amounts to 30
PUs. On the spot fines can be issued when regulations for some regulatory breaches (e.g. failing to comply with
improvement notices).

7 Currently one PU is the equivalent of A$75 and increases in line with the consumer price index (CPI)
Scientific Scuba Diver Manual (AS/NZS 2299.2:2002) 10/123 Chapter 3
3. Risk, Risk Factors, Risk Control, and Risk Assessment for Diving
Outlines the frequency of exposure to risk, ist probability of adverse outcome, and the seriousness of such an
outcome. The following table illustrates an applicable model in the determination of the RISK factor (fig. 3.1):

Procedure (although this procedure is quite subjective,
it provides good approximation of the risks involved):
Probability: first the risk of failure of controls is
determined and used as the starting point
Frequency: the corresponding frequency marks the
slope
LINE: connecting these two and intersecting it with
the center line generates the third reference
point
Possible consequences: estimating the possible
consequences yields the forth point which
builds the second slope
Risk Slope: connecting the intersecting point of the
center line with the forth point and extending it

to the risk score line scores for the overall risk Fig. 3.1: Risk score chart
factor

Risk Factors
Environmental conditions: certain parameters should be examined for their effects on the dive from the
perspective of operations both on the surface and below, including, but not limited to –
(i) strength and direction of the surface wind and the degree of influence that it may have on the diving
operation and emergency response capability;
(i) current and tide;
(i) underwater visibility;
(i) entrapment hazards (kelp forests, cords, nets, etc.);
(i) depth at workplace;
(i) water temperature (avoiding hypothermia / hyperthermia, a factor that determines the thickness of
the wetsuit);
(i) time of day;
(i) underwater terrain;
(i) atmospheric temperature and humidity;
(i) contaminants (working in oil tanks, septic tanks, sewage pipes, etc.)
(i) isolation of the dive site (how long does it take to get a DCI victim to the next hyperbaric pressure
chamber);
Task related factors also include the complexity of the diving task or the presence of a component, which is non-
routine in nature and may increase the level of risk associated with a diving operation.

Hyperbaric and physiological Risk Factors include:
(i) frequency of diving, including multiple ascents, repetitive diving, and multi-day diving;
(i) depth and duration of dive;
(i) breathing gas used (compressed air, Nitrox, Heliox, closed and semi-closed rebreather);
(i) exertion required to reach dive site or to conduct task;
(i) excessive noise (compressor noise, boat and / or container ship traffic, underwater drilling, etc.);
(i) immediate pre-dive fitness (prior dives, prior physical exertion, fatigue, recent illness – big no-no’s
include alcohol consumption, narcotics, and nicotine); in order to reduce the risk of a DCI incident,
drink plenty of water before and after the dive (600mL each time); and
(i) altitude exposure (dives exceeding 300m in altitude, in regards to the DCIEM table, must be treated
with a correction factor);
The effects of associated activity factors should be assessed as well. Associated factors include:
(i) manual handling;
(i) boat handling;
(i) dive platforms (pontoons, etc.)