Scientific Method in Brief PDF
Preview Scientific Method in Brief
Scientific Method in Brief Thegeneralprinciplesofthescientificmethod,whichareapplicableacrossallof thesciences,areessentialforperspective,productivity,andinnovation.These principlesincludedeductiveandinductivelogic,probability,parsimony,and hypothesistesting,aswellasscience’spresuppositions,limitations,ethics,and boldclaimsofrationalityandtruth.Theimplicitcontrastiswithspecialized techniquesconfinedtoagivendiscipline,suchasDNAsequencinginbiology. Neithergeneralprinciplesnorspecializedtechniquescansubstituteforone another,butratherthewinningcombinationforscientistsismasteryofboth. Thepurposesofthisbookaretoenhanceperspectiveonsciencebydrawing insightsfromthehumanitiesandtoincreaseproductivitybyfosteringadeep understandingofthegeneralprinciplesofscientificmethod.Theexamplesand casestudiesspanthephysical,biological,andsocialsciences;include applicationsinagriculture,engineering,andmedicine;andalsoexplorescience’s interrelationshipswithdisciplinesinthehumanitiessuchasphilosophyandlaw. Thisbookengagesagreatdiversityofviewpointsonscience,bothhistorical andcontemporary,andrespondsbyaffirmingscience’srationality.Informedby positionpapersonsciencefromtheAmericanAssociationfortheAdvancement ofScience,theNationalAcademyofSciences,andNationalScienceFoundation, thisbookalignswithadistinctivelymainstreamvisionofscience.Itisanideal resourceforanyoneundertakingasystematicstudyofscientificmethodforthe firsttime,fromundergraduatestoprofessionalsinboththesciencesandthe humanities. HughG.Gauch,Jr.,isaSeniorResearchSpecialistintheCollegeofAgriculture andLifeSciencesatCornellUniversity,NewYork.HeteachesCornell’scourse onscientificmethod,andforthelastfourdecadeshisresearchhasfocusedon thestatisticalanalysisofecologicalandagriculturaldata.Heisauthorof ScientificMethodinPractice(Cambridge,2002),whichisthebasisforthismore conciseandstudent-focusedtext. Scientific Method in Brief Hugh G. Gauch, Jr. CornellUniversity,NewYork cambridgeuniversitypress Cambridge,NewYork,Melbourne,Madrid,CapeTown, Singapore,Sa˜oPaulo,Delhi,MexicoCity CambridgeUniversityPress TheEdinburghBuilding,CambridgeCB28RU,UK PublishedintheUnitedStatesofAmericabyCambridgeUniversityPress,NewYork www.cambridge.org Informationonthistitle:www.cambridge.org/9781107666726 (cid:2)C HughG.Gauch,Jr.2012 Thispublicationisincopyright.Subjecttostatutoryexception andtotheprovisionsofrelevantcollectivelicensingagreements, noreproductionofanypartmaytakeplacewithoutthewritten permissionofCambridgeUniversityPress. Firstpublished2012 PrintedandBoundintheUnitedKingdombytheMPGBooksGroup AcataloguerecordforthispublicationisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary LibraryofCongressCataloguinginPublicationdata Gauch,Jr.,HughG.,1942– Scientificmethodinbrief/HughG.Gauch,Jr. p. cm. ISBN978-1-107-66672-6(pbk.) 1.Science–Methodology. I.Title. Q175.G3368 2012 001.4(cid:3)2–dc23 2012016520 ISBN978-1-107-66672-6Paperback CambridgeUniversityPresshasnoresponsibilityforthepersistenceor accuracyofURLsforexternalorthird-partyinternetwebsitesreferredto inthispublication,anddoesnotguaranteethatanycontentonsuch websitesis,orwillremain,accurateorappropriate. ThisbookisdedicatedtomyesteemedCornellcolleagues, GaryWarrenFick,CharlesChristopherFick,and JustinDavidMcGeary. Contents ForewordbyJamesR.Miller pagexi Preface xiii 1 Introduction 1 Thegatewayintoscience 2 Acontroversialidea 5 TheAAASpositiononmethod 6 Scienceasaliberalart 7 Benefitsandchallenges 10 Personalexperience 12 Sevenstreams 15 Historicalandfutureoutlook 17 Summary 18 Studyquestions 19 2 Fourboldclaims 21 Rationality 21 Truth 23 Objectivity 26 Realism 28 Scienceandcommonsense 29 Summary 32 Studyquestions 33 3 Abriefhistoryoftruth 34 Themostelementalquestion 34 Aristotle 36 Augustine 38 Medievalscholars 39 vii viii Contents Modernscholars 42 Water 49 Summary 51 Studyquestions 51 4 Science’scontestedrationality 53 Science’sauditors 54 Elusivetruth 56 Theory-ladendata 57 Incommensurableparadigms 58 Emptyconsensus 60 Reactionsfromscientists 61 TheAAASposture 66 Cleartargets 69 Summary 71 Studyquestions 72 5 Science’spresuppositions 73 Historicalperspectiveonpresuppositions 74 ThePELmodeloffulldisclosure 78 Implementationofpresuppositions 84 Science’sworldviewforum 89 Justificationofknowledgeclaims 91 Reviewoffunctions 93 Summary 94 Studyquestions 95 6 Science’spowersandlimits 96 Ratherobviouslimitations 96 Thesciencesandworldviews 97 Empiricalmethodinthehumanities 100 Individualexperienceandworldviews 105 Logicalrolesanddiagnoses 107 Reviewofboundaries 108 Personalrewardsfromscience 108 Summary 110 Studyquestions 110 7 Deductivelogic 112 Deductionandinduction 113 Historicalperspectiveondeduction 115 Propositionallogic 118 Predicatelogic 121
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