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Science of Vision K.N. Leibovic Editor Science of Vision With 171 Figures in 291 Parts Springer-Verlag New York Berlin Heidelberg London Paris Tokyo Hong Kong K.N. Leibovic Department of Biophysical Sciences Department of Ophthalmology State University of New York at Buffalo Buffalo, New York 14214 USA Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Science of vision I K.N. Leibovic, editor. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references. I. Vision. 2. Visual perception. 3. Computer vision. I. Leibovic, K. N., 1921- QP475.S44 1990 612.8'4-dc20 90-9589 Printed on acid-free paper © 1990 Springer-Verlag New York Inc. Softcover reprint of the hardcover )stedition 1990 All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written permission of the publisher (Springer-Verlag New York, Inc., 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. Use in con nection with any form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer soft ware, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed is forbidden. The use of general descriptive names, trade names, trademarks, etc., in this publication, even if the former are not especially identified, is not to be taken as a sign that such names, as understood by the Trade Marks and Merchandise Marks Act, may accordingly be used freely by anyone. While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of going to press, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for any errors or omissions that may be made. The publisher makes no warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein. Typeset by Publishers Service of Montana, Bozeman, Montana. 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ISBN -13:978-1-4612-7998-3 e-ISBN-13:978-1-4612-3406-7 DOl: 10.1007/978-1-4612-3406-7 Preface Over the past several years there have been important developments in our understanding of the biological bases of vision on the one hand and in the formu lation of computational theories on the other hand. Contributions to this progress have come from a wide range of disciplines in the biological and physi cal sciences. Although the implementation of function in biological and man made systems may be very different, there are principles applicable to a task which they share in common. The theme of this book is that Vision Science is an interdisciplinary subject. In this it is in the tradition of Information Processing in the Nervous System which I edited and which was published by Springer-Verlag in 1969. A few years ago Malcolm Slaughter and I with the help of our colleagues formed an Interdisciplinary Group in Vision and I put together a Vision Course for graduate and postdoctoral students who came from anatomy, biophysics and biochemistry, computer science, electrical engineering, ophthalmology, physiol ogy, and psychology. This book grew out of that course. We have been fortunate to have contributions from both inside and outside SUNY/Buffalo. Had it not been for this unique participation from a number of disciplines we may not have written yet another book on vision of which there are already enough to fill several libraries. We make no attempt to be encyclopedic. But we should like to believe that the topics we have chosen are interesting and representative of current knowledge and research in the vision sciences. The contributors to this volume have all been involved in active research. Naturally, they have developed their individual views, which may not always be in the groove of the most repeated and prevailing dogma. This is another motive for writing yet another book on vision. In some places we have included previously unpublished material and we have put for ward hypotheses which hopefully will encourage critical thinking. It is always difficult to address a diverse audience. Different authors deal with this in different ways and this, inevitably, is reflected in the following chapters. Our aim has been to review the present status and take the reader to problems in current research including some as yet unresolved issues. We have tried to make the material accessible to the scientifically mature, nonspecialist reader. But the specialist may find a fresh perspective, while the scientist from another or v vi Preface related discipline will become aware of the progress being made. Hopefully, the reader will gain an appreciation, ifhe or she does not already have one, ofthe rich variety and depth of the science of vision. Our coauthors range from the young scientists near the beginning of their careers who are helping to advance the exciting new research in vision, to those of us looking back on a life dedicated to pushing aside the curtains enfolding our ignorance. Among the latter it is a particular pleasure to acknowledge the collaboration of Robert Boynton who will be retiring in 1991. He contributed to Information Processing in the Nervous System as well as to this volume. With his present chapter he can look back on 40 years of work starting with adap tation and proceeding to color vision. Finally, on a personal note, to the extent that my efforts as author and editor may be of any merit, they are dedicated to the memory of my parents Joseph Avigdor and Chassia Leibovic and of my son David Avigdor Leibovic. K.N. LEIBOVIC Acknowledgment: The preparation of this manuscript was aided by a gift to K.N. Leibovic from the UB. School of Medicine Class of '39. Contents Preface.. . . . . ... . .. . .. . .. . .. .. ... ... . .. . .. ..... .. . . . .. . ... .. v Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix Overview K.N. LEIBOVIC. . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi Part 1: Biophysics and Physiology 1 The Visual Pathway: An Introduction to Structure and Organization JOHN R. CarTER. . . • . . • . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . 3 2 Vertebrate Photoreceptors K.N. LEIBOVIC ............... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . 16 3 The Vertebrate Retina MALCOLM SLAUGHTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . 53 4 Nested Maps in Macaque Monkey Visual Cortex BRUCE M. Dow .......................................... 84 5 Development of Orderly Connections in the Retinotectal System SUSAN B. UDIN . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . •. 125 Part 2: Psychophysics 6 Perceptual Aspects of Spatial and Temporal Relationships K.N. LEIBOVIC ...............................•..... . . . . .. 153 7 Classical and Modem Psychophysical Studies of Dark and Light Adaptation and Their Relationship to Underlying Retinal Function THOMAS E. FRUMKES .................•.................... 172 vii viii Contents 8 Human Color Perception RoBERT M. BoYNTON. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 211 9 From Visual Structure to Perceptual Function WILliAM MAGUIRE, NAOMI WEISSTEIN, and VICTOR KLYMENKO .... 254 Part 3: Theory and Computation 10 Visual Information: Structure and Function K.N. LEIBOVIC ................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 313 11 Computational Vision with Reference to Binocular Stereo Vision RICHARD P. WILDES ....................................... 332 12 Computer Vision Analysis of Boundary Images DEBORAH WALTERS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 365 13 A Representation for Qualitative 3-D Object Recognition Integrating Object-Centered and Viewer-Centered Models SVEN 1. DICKINSON, ALEX P. PENTLAND, and AZRIEL ROSENFELD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 398 14 From 2-D Images to 3-D Models ALEX P. PENTLAND ....................................... 422 15 Applied Machine Vision PETER D. SCOTT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 439 Glossary .................................................... 466 Index.. . .... ..... ... ... . .... ... ......... ... ..... ...... ...... 481 Contributors ROBERT M. BOYNTON Department of Psychology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, USA JOHN R. COTTER Department of Anatomical Sciences, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York 14214, USA SVEN 1. DICKINSON Computer Vision Laboratory, Center for Automation Research, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, USA BRUCE M. Dow Department of Physiology, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York 14214, USA THOMAS E. FRUMKES Department of Psychology, Queens College of CUNY, Flushing, New York 11367, USA VICTOR KLYMENKO Research Division, Radiology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27514, USA K.N. LEIBOVIC Department of Biophysical Sciences and Department of Ophthalmology, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York 14214, USA WILLIAM MAGUIRE Department of Radiology, Long Island Jewish Medical Center, New Hyde Park, New York 11042, USA ALEX P. PENTLAND Vision Sciences Group, The Media Laboratory, Mas sachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA AZRIEL ROSENFELD Computer Vision Laboratory, Center for Automation Research, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, USA PETER D. SCOTT Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York 14214, USA ix x Contributors MALCOLM SLAUGHTER Department of Biophysical Sciences, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York 14214, USA SUSAN B. UDIN Department of Physiology, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York 14214, USA DEBORAH WALTERS Department of Computer Sciences, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York 14214, USA NAOMI WEISSTEIN Department of Psychology, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York 14214, USA RICHARD P. WILDES Department of Computer Sciences, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York 14214, USA Overview K.N. LEIBOVIC Vision is the paramount sense in man. Not only are there more fibers dedicated to transmitting to the central nervous system the output from the eyes than from any other peripheral sense organ, but our mental processes, including memory, rely heavily on vision. We remember a visual scene more readily than a tactile or odorous experience and our language is full of visual metonyms: "vide" the following: "I can see behind his facade" when we mean "I can figure out in my mind what is going on in his"; "I take a different view" when we mean "I have a different opinion"; "I shall look into this" when we mean "I shall investigate this"; "He is a man of foresight" when we mean "He can think ahead" and so on. If no well-formulated thoughts can exist without language, then these examples sug gest that an understanding of vision is preliminary to an understanding of thought processes in the brain. Because vision is so important to man it is also important in operations serving man, such as robotics, image analysis of geological and weather surveys, and satellite observations of distant planets. The purpose of this brief overview is to provide a contextual setting for the chapters that follow. This book is divided into three parts. The first deals with the biological bases of vision, the second with psychophysics, and the third with theory and computation. We begin with a brief review of the visual pathways in Chapter 1, so as to put the structures which are subsequently discussed into perspective. Chapter I also introduces some basic characteristics of neural tissue and terminology frequently encountered in neuroanatomy and physiology. Over the past 20 years a surpris ingly large number of primate cortical areas have been found to be involved in vision (Chapter 1, Fig. 1.8, see also Van Essen, 1979; Cowey, 1981; Van Essen and Maunsell, 1983) further attesting to the dominant role of vision in sensory information processing. These areas of cortex are richly interconnected and we are beginning to get glimpses of their functions. In Chapter 2 we deal with photoreceptors which transform the physical signal into a neural response. The most publicized discovery in recent years has been the elucidation of the transduction cycle by which the absorbed photon energy is amplified some 105 times, converted to a membrane conductance change and transmitted to subsequent neurons. The hypothesis advanced by Hagins and his xi
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