Science and Technology in Development Planning. Science, Technology and Global Problems

179 Pages·1979·3.858 MB·English

by  Victor L. Urquidi (Eds.)

Other Titles in the SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND GLOBAL PROBLEMS Series
GOLDSMITH, M. & KING, A.
Issues of Development: Towards a New Role for Science and Technology
GVISHIANI, J.
Trends and Perspectives in Development of Science and Technology and
Their Impact on the Solution of Contemporary Problems
RADHAKRISHNA, S.
Views from the Developing World
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
IN
DEVELOPMENT PLANNING
Science, Technology and Global Problems
Edited by
VICTOR L. URQUIDI
PERGAMON PRESS
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First edition 1979
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Symposium on Science and Technology in Development
Planning, 4th, Mexico City, 1979
Science and technology in development planning.
- (Science, technology and global problems).
1. Underdeveloped areas - Economic policy
- Congresses
2. Underdeveloped areas - Science - Economic
aspects - Congresses 3. Underdeveloped areas -
Technology - Economic aspects - Congresses
, ,
1. Title II. Urquidi, Victor L III. Series
338.90091724 HC59.7 79-40912
ISBN 0-08-025227-3
In order to make this volume available as economically
and as rapidly as possible the authors' typescripts have
been reproduced in their original forms. This method
has its typographical limitations but it is hoped that they
in no way distract the reader.
Printed and bound in Great Britain by
William Clowes (Beccles) Limited, Beccles and London
SYMPOSIUM ON SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
IN DEVELOPMENT PLANNING
(Mexico City, May 28 - June 1, 1979)
Sponsored by
United Nations Advisory Committee on the
Application of Science and Technology
to Development (ACAST),
United Nations Committee for Development
Planning (CDP),
United Nations Department of International
Economical and Social Affairs,
Secretariat of the United Nations Conference
on Science and Technology for Development,
El Colegio de Mexico, with the cooperation
of the Mexican National Council for Science
and Technology (CONACYT)
Introduction
VICTOR L. URQUIDI*
As part of the preparations for the United Nations Conference on Science and Tech-
nology for Development, to be held in Vienna in August 1979, the U.N. Advisory
Committee onthe Application of Science for Technology to Development (ACAST), with
#
the cooperation of the U.N. Office for Science and Technology, organized a number
of symposia involving the worldscientific community and non-govermental organiza-
#
tions to discuss some of the major issues.
The first symposium was held in Tallin, U.S.S.R., on January 8-12, 1979, on Science
and Technology for Solving Global Problems Facing Mankind; the second at Singapore,
January 21-28, 1979, on Science and Technology for Development; the third in Kuala
Lumpur, April 27-30, 1979, on Science, Technology and Development: Views from the
Developing World. A fourth symposium, on Science and Technology in Development
Planning, was convened in Mexico City, May 28 to June 1, with the joint sponsorship
of ACAST, the U.N. Development Planning Committee (CDP), the U.N. Department of
International Economic and Social Affairs, the Secretariat of the U.N. Conference
on Science and Technology for Development, and El Colegio de Mexico, with the colla-
boration of the Mexican National Council for Science and Technology.
Reports from these symposia are being issued as part of the documentation of the
International Colloquium on Science, Technology and Society; Needs, Challenges and
Limitations, also sponsored by ACAST, to be held in Vienna on August 13-18, 1979.
The Report on the Mexico Symposium will be available to the Colloquium, as wel1l1 as
to the Conference and for general circulation, together with a second, shorty
document entitled "The Dynamics of Science, Technology and Development Planning.
The Symposium was attended by 44 participants from different parts of the world,
from both developed and developing countries and both market-economies and central-
ly planned economies, and 17 representatives of international organizations. It
was the first occasion, under United Nations' auspices, in which development
planners (several of them members of CDP) and those specialized in science and
technologypolicy (including members of ACAST) met to discuss the interactions
between science, technology and development planning. That is, the main focusof
#
the Symposium^was on planning rather tnan on development in general, recognizing
the complex link between such planning and the trends and policies in matters of
science and technology.
Although discussion was not limited to the case of the developing countries - in
fact, experiences of both developed market-economies and centrally-planned
socialist countries were taken into account - the main emphasis was on the issues
as they present themselves in the LDCs. In addition to general interactions and
the particular problems connected with the planning of science and technology in
developing countries, attention was paid also to these relationships in sectoral
planning (e.g. energy, food, health and capital goods) and to the use of new tech-
niques in development planning (information services, systems analysis, technology
assessment). Finally, consideration was given to aspects of international co-
operation.
The present volume contains a selection of the papers contributed to the Mexico
Symposium, under the five agenda items intended to convey to the reader the main
x
lines of thought brought to the Symposium and to illustrate various approaches.
Together with contributions to the other symposia, ACAST expresses the hope that
the material which follows will enrich the discussions at the Vienna Colloquium and
ι
2 Introduction
the U.N. Conference and help clarify issues which are basic for the development
LDCs and for a more balanced and equitable international economic order.
FOOTNOTE
Member of ACAST, Chairman of the Mexico Symposijm on Science and Technology
in Development Planning; President of El Colegio de Mexico.
1. Science and Technology Planning:
Possibilities and Limitations
GERARD K. BOON
INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY
The aim of this paper is to explore the possibilities and limitations of the plan-
ning of science and technology. To facilitate the discussion three basic questions
are posed:
Should science and technology be planned?
Can science and technology be planned?
How should science and technology be planned?
The first two questions are answered for both developing and developed countries.
The last question, which is the most difficult of the three, is answered only for
developing countries in general. Also, in answerinthis last question, the dis-
cussion considered technology planning only due tolimitations of space. Technol-
β
ogy planning is more urgent, or more short and medium term significance and more
complex than science planning. Further, only the case of the market regulated
economies is analyzed. Planned economies also by definition plan their science and
technology but I have insufficient information available to report on the successes
and failures in this kind of planning.
Although the term appropriate technology is used sparsely, the concept is implied
in much of the discussion in this paper and it is therefore useful to define it:
appropriate technology is a means of production or know-how which minimizes, from a
Private or social point of view, sacrifices for given benefits or maximizes bene-
its for given sacrifices, given its compliance to a number of essentially varying
conditions. (1) The conditions may refer to those relevant in a micro and macro
setting and can be of any nature: technological, economic, socio-political, cul-
tural, and so on.
It is important that we note that this definition covers private and social appro-
priateness. Given the reality in which a considerable portion of the technology
traded is transferred on the basis of a market mechanism, the issue is now can a
choice and change of technology be tailored to a greater social appropriateness.
This definition and the interpretation given to it underlie the discussions pre-
sented in this paper.
Briefly, the paper is summarized as follows. I believe that science and technology
should be planned in both developing and developed countries. Nevertheless, the
word planning is very broadly defined and includes informal, indirect guidance by
various ways and means. However, whatever the type of planning it should be based
on a comprehensive conception of present and future needs of society.
It is argued that science planning is in certain^aspects more simple since in most
countries it is financed almost entirely by public funds, implying a certain control
and influence. Technology planning is more complex because its choice and change
largely occurs in private enterprise.
The second question is also affirmatively answered for both developed and develop-
ing countries. Broadley two types of technology are considered: 'more static' and
5
6 1 Gerard Κ. Boon
'dynamic. There is an interdependent effeetbetween technology and its change in
β
time and society. However, dynamic technologies tend to influence and to shape
society more than static technologies. The net impact of the latter technologies
is such that they are more conditioned by society than society by them. The re-
verse is the case for dynamic technologies. In the developed societies it is there-
β
fore essential to guide or control, respectively.by direct or indirect ways, the
changes and innovations in the dynamic technologies or at least to follow closely
their developments and to evaluate at an early stage their possible impacts on
society. There is much less need in the developed societies to guide the 'more
static technologies in their development because they are conditioned to such an
extent by society that their characteristics, merely by indirect influences, reflect
society's needs.
In the case of developing countries it is useful to differentiate technologies
further between those traded and allocated through a market mechanism and those
which have a monopoly character, in various degrees, in their availability. Most
often dynamic technologies are characterized by a more monopolistic transfer.
Nevertheless there are certainly means of planning in the sense of influencing and
controlling their transfer and even of the location of their R and D. The 'more
static' technologies encounter a greater need for planning in the developing coun-
tries than in the developed ones. The reason is that most developing countries
depend on the First World for this technology.
Since the 'more static' technologies are very much conditioned by society in their
place of origin, they are less suitable for societies with different conditions.
This, in principle, increases the need for influence and control of these technol-
ogies by countries that depend on their foreign imports.
The last section of this paper tries to be more specific in answering the question
'How can technology planning indeveloping countries be fulfilled?' A sectoral
breakdown is made: formal, semi-formal (semi-industrial) and informal.. The two-
dimensional technology concept (more static, dynamic) only needs to be introduced
for the formal sector. An answer is attempted for a two-dimensional time concept,
the present, the choice of technology and the future, the change of technology, for
all three sectors. A comprehensive technology planning needs a number of object-
ives which need to be consistent with the overall development objectives. Essen-
tially this aspect is socio-political. The major parameters and conditions which
influence the choiceand change of technology at the micro level are listed.
#
Accordingly,the choice and change of technology can be influenced by manipulating
#
the controlling variables and conditions comprehensively and consistently.
SHOULD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY BE PLANNED?
The question whether science and technology should be^ planned can be answered in
general terms and also more specifically. In the latter case the question to be
answered should read:. 'To what extent is there a real need for science and tech-
nology planning?' This question needs more information and a more detailed analy-
sis and is answered in the next section together with the possibility or feasibil-
ity of science and technology planning.
To answer the general question posed above three of the six words used in the
question need clarification. Wnat is meant by planning? Aspects of this concept
concern: (i) its level of aggregation or detail; (ii; its degree of institution-
alization; and (iii) its degree of effective power as to its potential penetration
into the decision process of entities of a lower and a different legal nature. In
this paper planning is conceived in a wide sense including a type which has only
advisory and indirect means of guidance and control at its disposal.
As far as the terms science and technology are concerned it is not only necessary
to differentiate between the two but also to stress that there is no need to use
both words in conjunction. Certainly as far as this paper is concerned, it is
necessary to separate both concepts. Although there is a certain inter-relation,
both concepts.are different, following distinct processes ofcreation, and are
#
mainly sensitive to different conditions and parameters. Science refers to a more
General infrastructural condition of non-applied knowledge embodied in the relevant
iterature and in a number of individuals.
The ability to apply scientific knowledge to solve practical problems is the neces-
sary step to gain know-how which is specific. This stage may or may not be followed
by the creation of technology, which is applied know-how in a physical or chemical
form. In the creation of know-how one needs a scientific infrastructural base.
The development of a scientific infrastructural base is a costly and time-consuming
process. Countries that wish to develop economically and industrially usually do
not have the time ot wait for the formation of this scientific infrastructure
which may easily take a period of several generations, and they therefore start to
rely on foreign science.infrastructures and foreign developed technology. Science
and technology each in its own particular way are imported.
Planning Possibilities and Limitations 7
All countries clearly want to reduce their dependence on foreign science and tech-
nology. To this end. almost all countries have some plan of action to cope with
this particular problem of dependence. Since the desire to reach development, or
to maintain a certain level of development, is currently felt so strongly, it is
hardly possible to leave this very basic infrastructure building for science com-
pletely to spontaneous forces. The time limit set for concrete development results
implies that the development of the scientific infrastructural base and the tech-
nological capability of the country has to be planned to a certain degree. Hence,
although it is true that science and technology in the Western World developed for
centuries without any planning, the situation in today's world is different mainly
for two reasons: firstly, the desire to achieve in one generation what before took
hundreds of years; and secondly, today's science and technology issues are far
more complex than when the developed countries started to build their infrastruc-
tures. In such a situation only wise, realistic and careful planning may avoid
bankruptcy, anarchy and revolution in the developing countries.
Although the above remarks refer only to developing countries, a need for a certain
planning of science and technology may arise in developed countries even if they
nave a market regulated economy. The educational system needs almost constant ad-
justments to allow for apparent changes coming from both supply and demand. Cer-
tain scientific developments are achieved very quickly and several developed coun-
tries have difficulty in keeping abreast of what is going on elsewhere. Although
small countries possibly have to specialize to a certain extent in scientific edu-
cation and infrastructural facilities, such decisions themselves require a compre-
hensive view, a plan, a strategy and a policy. It is certain that a country which
permits its scientific base to erode and to rely increasingly on a foreign devel-
oped science and technology will become subject to a process of underdevelopment.
Planning of the scientific infrastructure of a country is a necessity and totally
distinct from manpower planning. Manpower planning merely tends to coordinate
future demands and future supplies of students in all the various levels of educa-
tion and to consider the implications of these future educational market conditions
on the supply of teachers and educational facilities. The planning of science and
scientific infrastructural facilities refers more to changes in the margin of the
existing infrastructure concerned, to the assessment of areas for future potential
rapid scientific changes and breakthroughs, and to the choices to be made of cer-
tain science planning senarios.
The planning of technological development should first start with the realization
that, in contrast to science which in almost all countries is a public affair,
technological choice and development in the First and Third Worlds occurs in pri-
vate enterprise to a large extent. This is further analyzed below because it con-
cerns whether or not technological choice and change or progress can be planned.
Addressing first the question, 'should technological choice and change be planned
the answer is YES to the extent possible.
Why isthe answer yes, and does this answer refer to both First and Third World
countries? Indeed the affirmative answer, I believe, refers to both developed and
developing countries. The reasons are the following: Firstly technology is an
important variable affecting society to such an extent in many aspects and dimen-
sions that no single government can complete^ignore it or leave it solely to private
enterprise to take care of. Hence technological choice and development should
directly, although most indirectly, be controlled. The extent and nature of this
control should be planned according to a number of criteria and objectives. The
control mechanisms are not necessarily part of a direct planning system; they are
more part of a policy on technological choice and development which should be con-
sistent with the country's overall development objectives. Such a policy could be
compared with a financial policy, which manipulates the money supply indirectly in-
fluencing the inflation rate. The latter is one of the important variables to con-
trol in a society. There are several options for controlling the inflation vari-
able. The financial policy of a country is an indirect means of control but is not
necessarily part of a formal planning system. Similarly a technology policy is an
indirect means of control for the variable of technological choice and change, but
is also not necessarily a direct part of a formal planning system.
For developing countries the control of technology is possibly even more necessary
than for trie developed ones, for the simple reason that these countries are mainly
supplying their technological needs by imports of foreign technology - technology
which is made within another environment and for another level of industrial and
economic development. Indiscriminate imports of technology can be destructive to
the society of developing nations and may create more problems than it solves.
The answer to the general question whether science and technology should be planned
is therefore affirmative for both developed and developing countries, although the
type of planning applied may bevery informal and indirect and be restricted to
controlling the choice of technique and influencing the path of technological
change only by a rather overall science and technology policy. In the fourth part
of this paper, which deals with the question 'How can science and technology be
8 Gerard Κ. Boon
1
planned?, a more detailed discussion considers the need for a science and tech-
nology planning for a few technology categories in a number of settings.
CAN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY BE PLANNED?
The answer to this question again mainly depends on what is considered.to be plan-
ning and what kind of society will be involved. Every country can design a plan
for science and its development in time. On the basis of a number of qualitative
and quantitative targets, a plan may be formulated and policy guidelines expressed.
By means of financial allocations for physical and human facilities certain science
areas may be activated or stimulated while others may be restricted. .Since.most of
the basic science-related activities are financed by the public administration, in
?rinciple, there is control and little problem in implementing a plan for its
uture.course and development. In practice, there may be many problems since
academic scientists are not particularly the type of people who can be pushed
around, and structural changes in the#scientific base of a country may De.quite
difficult to implement due to vested interests and subsequent rigidities in the
existing structure.
However, more attention in this paper is given to the question of the planning of
technology and its development and change over time because the technology of
plannint issue is more sensitive, of more immediate importance, more,concrete and
more complex, due to its decentralized, often private firm, acquisition and crea-
tion, than science planning.
Technology planning is still in a stage of discussion; few countries have a con-
sistent technology plan, even fewer countries have it in satisfactory operation.
Since technology s change and progress is so vital to mankind, it cannot be left
only to the responsibility ot private enterprises, working on the profit motive to
create it. On the other hand, direct interference may considerably hamper the
decentralized.technological creativity. Besides, the criteria as well as the
direct mechanisms for interference are quite complex. Possibly one of the main
reasons why an adequate technology planning aiming at direct interference nowhere
functions satisfactorily is the complexity of technology and its enormous diver-
sity. Governments are unable to mobilize the know-how to come to a technological
assessment which is needed to formulate direct, concrete directives manipulating
technological choice and change at the firm level. Certain technologies, indeed,
are exclusively developed by powerful multinational companies. Outside these
multinationals, even at the universities, important details of these technologies
are not known.
Nevertheless governments increasingly.realize that technology, particularly future
technology, needs to be manipulated.with respect to.its direction, in the sense of
the particular branch or activity, its speed, the time lapse within which changes
materialize,.and its nature, as to its substance relative.to the use of primary
and intermediate inputs. However, there is considerable ignorance on how to go
about this technology manipulation process. Therefore, before discussing whether
technology can be planned, the subject matter must be defined more precisely.
First,.technology planning concerns two distinct aspects: the choice of existing
or available technology.and the development or the change of technology, by means
of adaptations, innovations and modernization. In the discussion of this subject
it is meaningful to distinguish two types of technology: 'more static' and 'more
dynamic'.
More static technologies are those which are subject to evolution and which are
designed to supply basic human needs. They embody manufacturing technological
principles known and applied for centuries. More dynamic technologies are those
which nave been developed in the last hundred years or so with a very.rapid
revolutionary development in the last forty years. Examples are chemical, petro-
chemical, electric, electronic, nuclear, space and aviation technology. The de-
gree in which the market regulates the supply and demand of technology differs
greatly among technology types. Certain technologies are designed, created, pro-
duced in volume to be marketed. Other technologies are developed by big and power-
ful firms, often of a transnational character, for its own production needs.
Therefore these technologies are not produced with the exclusive purpose of selling
them in a market. They are produced to be used, in first instance, exclusively
for internal company use. Tne technology is the exclusive property.of the produ-
cer-user and therefore strong monopoly elements dictate its availability.
These two different types of technology freely offered for sale,in.a market and
those which are not, with intermediate possibilities, and the distinction between
more static and more dynamic technology do not fully match. In other words, dy-
namic technologies are not necessarily monopolistic in their supply. Finally, it
should be remembered that part of the technology is not produced by private firms
but by state controlled or state owned institutions and usually does not enter in
a market either.